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Human Origins and Evolution: Evidence from the Y-Chromosome?, 2003.
Presents arguments that explain why sequence analysis cannot confidently answer evolutionary questions.
1,354 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 26 sources, APA, £ 32.95
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Abstract
This paper highlights difficulties with using sequence data to estimate parameters about human ancestral populations, particularly times of speciations (when new species evolved). The Y chromosome has been analyzed to infer various parameters about human ancestral populations and to provide clues as to human origins. The paper argues that the individual properties of this data source combined with a burgeoning list of refutable assumptions make any and all of these results utterly spurious. The paper argues that molecular experts claim that the old and imprecise science of paleontology has been superseded by their far more mathematically precise methods. These experts sideline the fact that all their estimates are fundamentally based on paleontologically acquired data. The paper includes illustrations and table.
From the Paper
"The Y-linked SRY gene triggers mammalian male-determining processes when expressed in the embryonic bipotential gonad. Sex chromosomes are thought to have evolved ~300Mya, probably replacing a mechanism based on gestational ambient temperature. Current opinion is that the Y-chromosomal SRY gene and its X-chromosome homologue (SOX3) are variants diverged from an ancestral non-sex-determining gene. When the ancient SRY-precursor gene gained a dominant and penetrant male-determining function the homologues became sex chromosomes and the process of dramatic degeneration and specialisation of the Y began. Pseudoautosomal regions (PARs) located at the tips of X and Y recombine at high frequency during male meiosis. Consequently, these regions are similar to autosomal sequences in base composition and gene diversity. PARs comprise 5% of the Y and the other 95% makes up the non-recombining region of the Y (NRY). Recombination deficiency of the NRY is thought to result from lack of homology with the X, due to several large inversions. Null mutations accumulate in NRY genes as they are ?sheltered? by X-chromosome homologues."
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The Origin of the Human Species, 2002.
This paper discusses the different arguments on the subject of how human beings were created.
3,115 words (approx. 12.5 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 63.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses man's fascination for knowledge on the origin of the human species. Until the seventeenth century, nobody questioned the belief that God created Man; but from that time on, philosophers began musing that perhaps there was a different explanation. The controversial debate regarding the truth in Charles Darwins' theory on evolution continues to this day. The paper discusses theories of different experts in the field on both side of the evolution argument, such as followers of the Teleology and Intelligent Design movements. In conclusion, the author of the paper argues in favour of the evolution theory.
From the Paper
"Teleology is the belief that, in the beginning, everything was created so that life could exist. Life itself was not created, but everything else was created so that life could come about. A well-known believer of teleology is Gerald Schroeder. In his book, The Science of God, he compares scientific creationist?s to Darwinian evolutionist?s belief of the chronology of time using Einstein?s Law of Relativity. Both scientific creationists and Darwinian evolutionists believe in the same order of time. They both believe that first the universe was created, followed by the arrival of water, land and first life, then the visibility of the stars, sun and moon, then the arrival of the first multi-cellular animals and winged insects, and ending with the first animals, mammals and humans."
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Human Rights, 2005.
This paper discusses the concept of human rights, which has its origin in the moral philosophies of Aristotle and the Stoic philosophers.
1,725 words (approx. 6.9 pages), 2 sources, MLA, £ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the theory of human rights has broadened in concept over the centuries; its contemporary form includes securing for individuals the necessary economic, political and social conditions required to lead a minimally good life regardless of their caste, color, nationality, religion or gender. The author points out that, despite some objections raised mostly by people with vested interests to the doctrine of human rights, most people around the world are in agreement that human rights should not only be respected but also be promoted actively. The paper relates that frequent human rights violations are still taking place around the world, as witnessed in Darfur (Sudan) and Abu Gharib (Iraq).
Table of Contents
Historical Origins and Development
Three Generations of Human Rights and its Current Concept
Objections to Human Rights & Their Rebuttal
The Moral Relativists' Argument
Do Human Rights Intrude on State Sovereignty?
Religious Objections
What are the Consequences of Disregarding Human Rights?
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The theory of human rights is based on the doctrine of "moral universalism" first put forward by Aristotle and Stoics. In "Nicomachean Ethics," Aristotle presents his argument in support of the existence of "a natural moral order" and opines that such a "natural" order should be the basis for all truly rational systems of justice. This concept of moral universalism implies that morality is not dependant on social and historical conditions and applies to all human beings regardless of place and time, and forms the basis of human rights. Roman Stoic philosophers such as Cicero and Seneca, also supported 'moral universalism' and argued that all moral laws originated in the rational will of God and the authority of such moral law transcended all local legal codes. Christianity, which emerged later, maintained the belief of a universal moral code in the ensuing centuries."
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Human Evolution and Closest Relative, 2007.
This paper discusses the evolution of the human and discusses human origins.
2,016 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 18 sources, MLA, £ 44.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that evolution is defined as a change in the gene pool of a population from generation to generation by such processes as mutation and natural selection. The writer notes that the topic of human evolution all started when human fossils and remains were discovered from different regions on earth. The writer points out that the availability of new technology even allows the study of the genetic structures of the fossils found, which signifies a more reliable and astonishing breakthrough in defining the start of human evolution. The writer concludes that many of the scientific evidences including that of the anatomical, archaeological and genetic provide a full proof view that modern humans descend from earlier hominid populations or our ape-like ancestors.
From the Paper
"Homo sapiens (about 100,000 years ago) is characterized by large brain size, high forehead, small eyebrow ridges, slender skeleton and upright structure. The Homo sapiens fossil record shows anatomical trends toward decreased bone mass. Their diet was more balanced - it included meat, grains and vegetables. The sapiens' tools were more sophisticated, and incorporated the use of raw materials. Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears. The remains of tools suggest that they knew how to make woven clothing (according to a claim by Michael Rappenglueck, of the University of Munich. 2000.). The appearance of Cro-Magnon culture about 40,000 years ago was characterized by fine artwork - beads, ivory carvings, clay figurines, decorated tools and even musical instruments."
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Hobbes, Human Nature and the State, 2007.
This paper discusses Thomas Hobbes' beliefs about human nature and the origin, character and functions of the state.
1,251 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 29.95
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Abstract
The paper examines Thomas Hobbes' claims that man, in his natural state, is driven by competitiveness and the desire for power and resources, to the extent that he will kill to preserve his own life. The paper shows how Hobbes' ideas of the ideal dictatorial state were entirely at odds with notions of feudal life.
From the Paper
"Thomas Hobbes is widely known for the wonderfully pithy line in which he claims that in the state of nature, the life of man would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." (Hobbes and MacPherson, 62) What is less widely known is that he based this claim on a calmly reasoned, materialist notion of the nature of reality. To Hobbes, all of reality consists of the motions of bodies. In the case of men, he believed that their motions are governed by passions, and moderated by reason. According to Hobbes, each man is an island, unable to truly understand other men, and motivated by a desire to be better than them, in terms of both reputation and resources."
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Review of Human Behavior Research, 2004.
Presents a literature review of some of the many aspects of human behavior research.
2,405 words (approx. 9.6 pages), 6 sources, APA, £ 51.95
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Abstract
Human behavior has been studied for thousands of years, yet researchers still find interesting aspects of human behavior to study. It is the complexities, still somewhat beyond comprehension, that leave the exploration of human beings as the true 'final frontier'. This paper discusses just an infinitesimal portion of the plethora of research on the interesting topic of human behavior. This original research ranges from the study of the ontogeny of serial order behavior in humans to an examination of the theory of planned behavior in the exercise domain.
From the Paper
"The study of human emotional response to changing circumstances is interesting, especially the study of why certain individuals are happier than average over time. Lucas and Baird (2004) utilized seven studies to verify their hypothesis and found that ?the moderate correlation between extraversion and positive affect is one of the strongest and most consistent findings in the study of personality psychology.? However, more research should be performed specifically with more varied age groups."
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Human Rights Law, 2003.
An analysis of the protections of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) as they apply to human rights law in the United Kingdom.
3,065 words (approx. 12.3 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 63.95
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Abstract
The paper reviews the history of the Council of Europe and The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, commonly known as the ECHR (European Convention on Human Rights). The paper analyzes the history of human rights in the UK beginning with the Magna Carta of the 13th century, and continuing into the 20th century, when legislation was developed to coordinate British law with the original ECHR of 1949 and its subsequent charters and protocols expanding European protections of civil rights. The paper reviews various sections of the ECHR and compares them to English Common Law and provisions of the UK's Human Rights Act of 1998. The paper discusses the difference between non-derogable rights and derogated rights, citing several relevant sections of the ECHR. It also examines several points of the ECHR and considers their acceptability under UK law. In conclusion, the paper finds that the ECHR laws are quite complex and that new British legislation only furthers the dissonance with their applicability to the UK.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Analysis
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper
"The Council for Europe had been originally established at the end of the Second World War and had an objective of the protection of Europe against totalitarianism and atrocities that were witnessed during the war. This council had the convention as a treaty within the actions it took. (European Convention on Human Rights) The United Kingdom was one of the founder members of this convention and also involved in the design of the law. It was also one of the first countries to approve the treaty. It has also appeals to be made to the European Commission for Human Rights since 1966. The influence of the Convention has been growing in the UK during the past ten years as the European Court of Human Rights are now taking quicker action about the appeals that are being made to it. (The European Convention on Human Rights)"
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Human Subjects' Protection, 2007.
An analysis of the role of The Office for Human Research Protections and the Institutional Review Boards for all human-subject research.
1,183 words (approx. 4.7 pages), 14 sources, MLA, £ 28.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the role of The Office for Human Research Protections in the United States, which was expanded in 2000 to oversee not only federally funded tests, but all human-subject research. The paper describes the challenges of the changes that were introduced and how they can be addressed. It then discusses the Institutional Review Boards (IRB) and their role. The paper concludes by discussing the consequences of opposing the local IRB mandated training for researchers. The paper contains a large section of original source documents appended to the paper.
Table of Contents:
I. Introduction
From a Yelp to a Roar
II. Challenges to Changes
III. Either you be . . .
From the Paper
"Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), created by universities and academic medical centers, establish committees called to review experimental protocols involving humans. Traditionally, as federal regulations were regarded as performance-based guidelines, IRBs discretionally acted on a protocol-by-protocol basis. Temporary shutdown of several academic IRBs during the past few years, along with the ensuing cessation of clinical research, encouraged administrators and researchers to begin to better protect subjects enrolled in trials, in order to move forward with their research projects. (Wynes, Martin, and Skorton)"
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The Human Genome Program and Me, 2001.
This paper looks at the U.S. Human Genome Project and the impact that it might have on the individual.
2,550 words (approx. 10.2 pages), 13 sources, £ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes the U.S. Human Genome Project and how this technology might effect the individual in the future. It looks at the plans of this project, the benefits it claims to have on medical and scientific research and how these advances might impact on humans in the coming years.
From the paper:
"The Department of Energy (DOE) Human Genome Program and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) together make up the U.S. Human Genome Project. It commenced in 1990 and originally planned to continue for fifteen years. This project will accomplish six objectives. These are to 1) identify all (approximately 30,000) genes in human DNA, 2) determine sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA, 3) store this information in databases, 4) improve tools for data analysis, 5) transfer related technologies to the private sector, and 6) address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. "
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Human Nature in Confucian Thought, 2006.
This paper stresses Confucius's positive view of human nature, as it is sometimes not recognized.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 1 source, £ 43.95
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Abstract
The Analects of Confucius (551-479 BC) became important after the sage's death and in a fascinating way they continue to influence various persons of Chinese origin or whose cultures have been linked, at some time, to the Sinic world. This paper explains Confucianism's positive view of human nature, despite how the tradition is often stereotyped as rigid or austere, that is perhaps responsible in large part for the tenacity of Confucianism as it has combined with other religions and secular philosophy, through time. Confucius encouraged a positive view of human beings and human nature that may well explain its popularity and ongoing influence.
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Tragedy, Comedy and Human Nature, 2008.
This paper analyzes how human nature is reflected in the three theater genres of comedy, tragedy and drama.
1,401 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 32.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the three theater genres that reconstruct human experience: comedy, tragedy and drama. The paper first discusses the theater genre of tragedy using Shakespeare's "Hamlet" as an example and then describes the genre of comedy using Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream" as an illustration. The paper also discusses the origins of drama genre and points out how it differs from the tragedy genre. Furthermore, the paper then points out that despite notable difference in characters, plot, outcome and tone, these three genres all reflect human nature. The paper concludes that whether comical or tragic, the main function of the theater is to stir emotions by portraying the frailties of the human condition.
From the Paper
"The theater can be considered as a reproduction of the fundamental conditions of human existence. The theater can be seen as a set of symbols reconstructing the conditio humana as a basic theater representation contains all the trials and tribulations of life. Acting can be deciphered as the attempt to assume a different identity. In this sense, the theater is a continuous creation and changing of identities. Irrespective of cultural and epochal differences, this has remained a constant as far as theatrical performance. There are three theater genres each reconstructing human experience: comedy, tragedy and drama. Nonetheless, despite notable difference in characters, plot, outcome, tone etc. these three genres have one thing in common, i.e. they reflect human nature."
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Human Rights Violations, 2005.
Examines and compares human rights violations towards Jews in Nazi Germany and the population of Chechnya.
5,900 words (approx. 23.6 pages), 10 sources, MLA, £ 99.95
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Abstract
Two great examples of far-reaching human rights violations that have been studied extensively are the treatment of Jews in Nazi Germany, as well as the violations in Chechnya. These two major human rights violations have been viewed quite often throughout the international community. There have been many hours of investigation put into finding and understanding the origins, dimensions, and outcomes of both of these ruthless acts of violence. By comparing the two, this paper provides insight into how these violations first began and all the dimensions associated with the two. It also provides insight into how the human rights movement began and how it has looked to solve these problems.
From the Paper
"The combat between federal forces and Chechen rebels has for the most part ceased over the last few years yet the disappearances, torture, and summary execution of detainees continue. The type of fighting has changed from the classical war and has turned into a "dirty war, where human rights violations and not the conquest or defense of territory are the main goals" (Denber). Criminal investigations into disappearances have been very ineffective and poorly enforced and innocent people continue being severely tortured and killed, and the perpetrators easily get away with it."
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The Human Need to Believe in God, 2008.
A discussion of why human beings have always needed a god or gods to believe in.
1,908 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 42.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the origins of religion and how they may have evolved from a basic human need to believe in something that was meta-physical, divine, and omnipotent. The paper also focuses on the indebtedness - if any - of some of today's prominent religions to other sects which have been lost to the mists of time. Furthermore, this paper explores what purposes myths served in the ancient world and how they benefited ancient societies in ways that other forms of socialization perhaps could not. In the final analysis, the paper suggests that religion may have evolved from more primitive forms of morals and maintains that religion is beneficial to the human species.
From the Paper
"Returning once more to the work of Paul Kurtz, the need for religion is something that all ancient human societies required insofar as it was an ideal (or at least tolerably effective) coping mechanism for dealing with all of the many things early man could not control. For instance, it assuaged the fear of death, gave human beings the comfort of believing that the injustices of this world would be rectified in the next one, was a means by which the tribulations brought about famine, pestilence, terrible weather or warfare could be endured in the hopes of better days to come, and - finally - religion was a palliative that restored hope in instance wherein hope might not be easily revived otherwise. Finally, religion gave early man the faith that the unseen factors shaping the world (for better or for ill) could be propitiated and even brought to serve the needs of the local community (Kurtz, 23)."
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The Computational View of the Human Mind, 2004.
A look at some of the philosophy behind the computational view of the human mind.
868 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 21.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how the computational view of the human mind is a philosophical and biological approach to the human mental processes, whereby the mind is likened, quite literally, to a digital computer. In particular, it looks at how philosophers of language and learning theory, such as Jerry Fodor, have since developed its central philosophical and biological assumption and how the attraction of CTM for philosophers and scientists may initially have been because of the seductive simplicity of the digital computer model for explaining cognitive phenomena. It discusses how working out the epistemological difficulties of the linguistic component of CTM has proved problematic since the early, heady days of its origins and has since been contrasted with the ?neural net? model of connectivist philosophy.
From the Paper
"The attraction of the computational model for students of linguists rests in its connections with Chomskian linguistics. Noam Chomsky argued that rather than children simply being ?conditioned? to learn language, the mind of a child?s ability to latch on to grammatical rules, and to be able to apply them in indefinitely many novel contexts, required an ?inner language of thought.? Chomskian linguistics was thus viewed as requiring, according to computationalists that the human mind must have a computational element, or a kind of hard-wiring for the ability to receive language that transcended any Skinner-like ideal of conditioning. (Chomsky, 1959)"
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