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Fallacies, 2007.
An analysis of three common fallacies and their significance to critical thinking.
987 words (approx. 3.9 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 21.95
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Abstract
This paper details three common fallacies to critical thinking, particularly within an organization. It provides examples of each fallacy (analogy or false analogy, post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and the straw man argument) and it addresses the significance of each fallacy in relation to critical thinking. The paper then examines the general application of fallacies in relation to decision-making.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Fallacies
Arguments and Fallacies
Common Fallacies
Critical Thinking and Decision- making
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The straw man argument is another logical fallacy. The straw man approach attempts to misrepresent an opponent's position on a subject to make it easier to attack the opponent. Using the straw man tactic, one would distort the view of the opponent to ridiculous extremes or attack the weak premises associated with the argument. An example of this form of logical fallacy is represented in an article published in The Vancouver Sun. The article specifically reveals how the straw man approach is used to discredit expert claims to the cause and effects of global warming and extreme weather events. In this article, the Vancouver Sun writer Morag Carter opposes the position of the editor of the Journal of Natural Hazards, Tad Murty. The Sun writer explains, Murty has been quoted in the press: "This [global warming] is the biggest scientific hoax being perpetrated on humanity". Murty goes on to explain, " There is no global warming due to human anthropogenic activities" (Carter, 2006). Carter uses this article to stress how Murty has used the straw man approach to attack the credibility of the claim that global warming is contributing to extreme weather events."
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Common Fallacies in Debate, 2006.
An overview of different fallacies commonly used in debate with examples that illustrate the fallacies.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 1 source, £ 15.95
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Abstract
This paper is an overview of sixteen common fallacies used in debate. The paper provides two examples of each in the hopes that students can better discern these fallacies when they emerge in debate and/or in academic literature. As a useful point, these examples can also be used to highlight the partisanship of leading politicians eager to spread their own agenda.
From the Paper
"Ad Hominem: personal attacks of any kind are ad hominem attacks. Two examples would be Al Franken's loud denunciations of Bill O'Reilly and others while another would be someone dismissing George W. Bush's policies because he is (allegedly) "stupid". Ad Populum: Two examples of ad populum fallacies would be recent gall-up polls showing weak support for the war in Iraq and/or an argument that insists that "most people" do not want gay marriage or an end to abortion."
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Logical Fallacies in the Media, 2006.
An understanding of logical fallacies by finding four logical fallacies of two types in the media.
810 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 9 sources, MLA, £ 17.95
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Abstract
This paper demonstrates techniques that exist in the media that present facts and events that cause those viewing or listening to the media to respond in predictable ways. The paper reports how these 'logical fallacies' are very effective techniques for drawing forth the desired response from news media observers.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
I. Argumentum Ad Populum
II. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam
III. The Anonymous Authority
Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper
"Argumentum Ad Populum refers to that which is a commonly held belief. One example of this is the supposed fact, as touted by news media and the present Washington Administration that the country of Iraq had 'weapons of mass destruction' which where a threat to the national security and safety of the United States. In fact an entire war was based on these 'weapons of mass destruction' which have been found to most definitely 'not' exist. This use of the technique of 'Argumentum Ad Populum' has been used in the past by the government but not to this great extent or to the cost in terms of lives that these logical fallacies perpetrated. "
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Fallacies in the Media, 2006.
This paper examines twelve instances of fallacies in the media.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 12 sources, £ 15.95
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Abstract
This paper gives brief examples and explanations of twelve separate instances of fallacies in either advertisements or editorials in newspapers. The author organizes the paper according to the type of fallacy each example represents. The paper includes fallacies such as appeals to force, appeals to pity, appeals to vanity and bandwagon fallacies.
From the Paper
"Joanne Ditmer argues that we must protect and preserve our public open spaces. As evidence for this, she argues that if we do not, those lands could easily be transformed housing for convicted sex offenders, suggesting that if we do not preserve open space then we are all at danger from the proximity of those offenders. This is an obvious fallacy of appeal to force. Similarly in his article, David Ulin argues against the development of robots that could be used by the military to fight battles."
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Fallacies In Advertising, 1999.
Describes logical fallacies in 10 print advertisements (e.g. the false connection fallacy in the Mitsubishi advertisement).
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 9 sources, £ 43.95
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Abstract
Is the study of logic relevant to advertising? Is advertising, which is purely emotional, ever required to be also logical? Logical fallacies are highly suggestive and persuasive. Every day consumers are bombarded with one persuasive communication after another.
These appeals persuade not through the give-and-take of argument and debate, but through the manipulation of symbols and of our most basic human emotions. With the growth of communication tools like the Internet, the flow of persuasive messages has been dramatically accelerated.
From the Paper
"LOGICAL FALLACIES AS EXPRESSED IN ADVERTISING
Introduction
Is the study of logic relevant to advertising? Is advertising, which is purely emotional, ever required to be also logical? Logical fallacies are highly suggestive and persuasive. Every day consumers are bombarded with one persuasive communication after another.
These appeals persuade not through the give-and-take of argument and debate, but through the manipulation of symbols and of our most basic human emotions. With the growth of communication tools like the Internet, the flow of persuasive messages has been dramatically accelerated.
In this paper, 10 different examples of logical fallacies ..."
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Logical Fallacies, 2004.
A look at the application of logical fallacies with three examples known as 'straw man', 'equivocation', and 'ad hominem'.
1,057 words (approx. 4.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 22.95
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Abstract
Logical fallacies are methods of argumentation or persuasion that, in simplest terms, look or sound good, but do not stand up to critical analysis. This paper explains that, although there are more, three very commonly used examples of logical fallacies are 'straw man', 'equivocation' and 'ad hominem'. It shows how these fallacies are frequently used to get people to agree to desired proposals or plans. They are often used when those doing the proposing either are not sure their facts are strong enough to get cooperation or those doing the proposing are sure that people will not agree because the proposals are not honest/necessary or useful to begin with.
From the Paper
"The straw man fallacy includes such approaches as stereotyping, caricaturing, name-calling, slanted language or deck-stacking. Basically the idea is to portray your opponent as weak so that your own arguments look stronger. Reporting the opposing views in overly simplified terms or in concepts that are absurd are relied on to make the opinion or position offered by those employing the technique, seem stronger and more sensible."
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Logical Fallacies, 2005.
A look at how logical fallacies confront people in all aspects of life and the harm they can do do our decision-making process.
774 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 3 sources, APA, £ 16.95
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Abstract
This paper describes how logical fallacies can affect us in academic and scientific research and even in the decisions we make in everyday life. The paper points out that a very valuable skill in making decisions is the ability to identify logical fallacies and to apply tools that help you identify them. Moreover, the paper describes some types of logical fallacies and some of the tools for identifying them, as well.
From the Paper
"There is little question that logical or analytical fallacies can (and have) plagued data analysts in all major fields of knowledge from the beginning of recorded time. Not only can these fallacies of reason cause immense harm due to their capacity to mislead, but they can also ruin an otherwise sound argument or conclusion. For this reason, it is important to utilize varied ?tools? designed to prevent or detect fallacies."
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Fallacies, 2004.
A discussion of the significance of three logical fallacies: personal attack; 'two wrongs make a right'; and 'red herring'.
847 words (approx. 3.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 18.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how critical thinking is evident by the very fact that it plays a pivotal role in any process of enquiry that is undertaken to arrive at the truth, a sound argument, or an objective opinion. It discusses three fallacies that belong to the broader category of informal fallacies, which rely on ambiguity and emotional appeal instead of logic and reason and shows how important it is that critical thinkers develop the necessary skills to ensure that reasoning is based on verifiable facts and relevant premises and not on fallacies of logic.
From the Paper
"The red herring fallacy, which is also known as ignorance of refutation, shares a great deal of similarity with the two fallacies discussed earlier. This is because all three fallacies attempt to digress from the main argument. However, the red herring fallacy refers to an argument that is based on premises, which are logically irrelevant to its conclusion (Curtis, 2001-2004). For example, if a business that is accused of creating unacceptable levels of pollution argues that it is generating employment for thousands of people and that it pays millions of dollars in taxes, it is using premises that are irrelevant to the conclusion. As such, decisions in such cases must take place only after all such irrelevant reasons are weeded out."
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Logical Fallacies in Business Reporting, 2004.
Discusses three types of logical fallacies in business reporting from a critical thinking perspective.
1,383 words (approx. 5.5 pages), 4 sources, APA, £ 28.95
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Abstract
Although the reporting of facts and figures is often thought of as an objective science, quite frequently even business reporting is characterized by logical fallacies, including but not limited to, appeals to ignorance, hasty generalizations, and ad hominem attacks. This paper argues that these logical fallacies are particularly common and pernicious in business reporting because of the frequently technically complex nature of the subject matter in regards to facts and figures, combined with the emotional texture of business reporting that involves the fabric and texture of individual lives. The paper shows that reporters wish to attract attention and render complexities comprehensible, but frequently fall into logically fallacious traps to accomplish these objectives. The paper provides examples from business reports to elaborate on the ideas.
From the Paper
"This is particularly important to remember when reading the business section about distasteful individuals, because it is tempting to assume, when hearing about past dirty dealings, to either discount all of the information brought up by the person, because of the past character of the potential economic criminal, or to assume that he or she knew everything about the dark corporate dealings at the company. Even the lack of evidence is made to sound dark in the above-cited article?s rhetoric: ?Considering that he was the driving force behind Enron's growth, the micromanaging former CEO did an amazing job of distancing himself from its decline. He stopped selling stock four months before Enron collapsed?and left the company entirely two months beforehand. He rarely used e-mail. His signature is conspicuously, and uncharacteristically, absent from the approval sheets for some of Fastow's most controversial deals.? (?Who Will Fastow implicate?? January 19, 2004, Business Week Online retrieved on January 19, 2004 at http://www.aol.businessweek.com/bwdaily/index.html#top) The ad hominem attack is generally used as a kind of intellectual shorthand, equating man with message, rather than trying to understand the business at hand."
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Fallacies, 2007.
This paper examines three fallacies that constrain critical thinking skills.
1,168 words (approx. 4.7 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 24.95
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Abstract
The paper explains that critical thinking skills require a careful assessment of all of the facts and avoidance of many of the constraints introduced by various fallacies. The paper discusses the three common types of fallacy: the ad hominem arguments, the false dilemma and the straw man fallacy. The paper maintains that in a day and age where a "culture of fear" is being foisted on the American public by politicians and the media alike, critical thinking skills have become more important that ever.
Outline:
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper
"According to Walton (1989), ad hominem arguments are personal attacks on the answerer himself. Not surprisingly, for many people, "It may be difficult to know how to handle such powerful and subtle attacks, and whatever the answerer does or fails to do can be tricky and dangerous. In particular, it is hard to know what form of criticism is appropriate, or even to know how to reasonably and fairly evaluate whether or why such a question is open to justifiable criticism or not" (p. 147). This author emphasizes that in ad hominem fallacies, the attackers frequently focus on the personal situation, actions, character, or affiliations of the person whose arguments or statements are the subject of criticism, an approach that has long been regarded as a fallacy and which represents a lapse in critical thinking skills (Walton, 1989)."
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Logical Fallacies, 2005.
A discussion on logical fallacies and the use of them in President Bush's campaign.
920 words (approx. 3.7 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 19.95
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Abstract
This paper examines President Bush's use of logical fallacies in his presidential debates with Democratic candidate John Kerry. It defines and describes the three logical fallacies used by Bush namely, the Appeal to Pity, the Bandwagon Argument and the Red Herring. The author provides examples from these debates.
From the Paper
"Logical Fallacies are most basically defined as flaws in reasoning typically used in an argumentative chain of statements. Analyzing the set of assumptions that underlie a chain of argumentative statements is the bedrock of critical thinking. Fallacies are of ..."
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Fallacies, 2005.
An examination of three fallacies within different forms of media.
690 words (approx. 2.8 pages), 3 sources, APA, £ 14.95
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Abstract
This paper studies various forms of media to illustrate the use of three fallacies: 1) appeal to fear; 2) personal attack; and 3) slippery slope. The paper uses examples from a print advertisement, a website and an interview. The examples of the fallacies are illustrated along with an argument of why they might be being used by the speaker.
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Logical Fallacies.
This paper discusses logical fallacies, which are distressingly common in human thinking.
1,130 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 4 sources, APA, £ 23.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that personal attack is a form of fallacy in which the person presenting an argument is attacked instead of the argument itself, or a person may be attacked because of the association he or she keeps. The author points out that the bandwagon argument refers to the "Appeal to People" because people appeals often sway the population as a whole, which is type of "Fallacy of Relevance" because emotional reaction does not necessarily have any bearing on the truth or falsity of a conclusion. The paper relates that advertisements, organizational literature, CEO and manager appeals, and technology use within an organization are full of fallacies.
Table of Contents
Personal Attack
Bandwagon Argument
Appeal to Pity
Significance to Critical Thinking, Decision Making, and Organizational Examples
From the Paper
"In an appeal to pity, the reader is told to agree to the proposition because of the pitiful state of the author. An example of appeal to pity is, "We hope you'll accept our recommendations. We spent the last three months working extra time on it." This argument does not state the advantages of their recommendations as compared to other recommendations, rather states the fact of the number of hours worked on the recommendations. In other words, the arguer is trying to emphasize his/her pitiful state, which has nothing to do with the truth of the proposition."
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Critical Thinking and Logical Fallacies, 2004.
A look at author and speaker Brian Tracy's views on the human decision-making process.
1,135 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 5 sources, APA, £ 23.95
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Abstract
This paper explains Brian Tracy's belief that humans do not make decisions rationally or logically, but, instead, make decisions emotionally and then seek to justify them on a rational, logical, or rational-thought basis. The paper also explains and provides examples of logical fallacies and looks at how they are often used in arguments. The paper then looks at the implications that decisions based on emotions and arguments based on logical fallacies have for society and the democratic process.
From the Paper
"For these reasons, the subject of logical fallacies tends to bend our imagination, or even go unnoticed. Logical fallacies are typically rooted in the emotional construct of the argument. Logical fallacies are based in emotional reasoning rather than critical, logical, or rational thought processes. In other words, when we make decisions emotionally, we most often void out logical thinking processed. While emotions serve as the motivating force behind our choices, we seek to move toward a logical basis so that our decision can be based on a foundation other than how it makes me feel."
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