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Chomskian Linguistics, 2002.
A review of chapter 13 of the book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" by Daniel Dennett, on the evolution of language.
1,665 words (approx. 6.7 pages), 1 source, £ 30.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes chapter 13 of Daniel Dennett's book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" which speaks on the evolution of language. The paper discusses how the book presents a lengthy discussion of many opposing arguments to language creation based on Darwin's theory of evolution. The paper shows how Dennett particularly focuses on Noam Chomsky's refutation of the existence or involvement of Darwinism ideas on language creation. Dennett's position asserts that language has evolved because of the many processes organisms, particularly human beings, had experienced. - based on Darwin's popular "natural selection process."
From the Paper
"After Dennett has presented his position in the first part of the chapter, he shifted the book's discussion to the opposing arguments of philosophers and scientists about the creation of language. Dennett particularly focused on Noam Chomsky's ideas and theories on how language was created. The main argument presented by Noam Chomsky against the Darwinian theory-based evolution of language is that "... language didn't really evolve but just rather suddenly arrived, an inexplicable gift, at best a by-product of the enlargement of the human brain." Chomsky presented his argument based on the "adaptations" that the human brain had undergone, later developing what Chomsky termed as "specialized organ" solely functioning to facilitate language and its processes. Chomskian Linguistics centers on "language learning", or the learning of language through a set of rules already set in human minds. This set of rules came from the "specialized organ" of language faculty Chomsky has formulated, and is labeled as the "Universal Grammar." "
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The Three Paradigms of Spelling Instruction, 2002.
This research paper uses Taylor-Heald's article on "Three Paradigms of Spelling Instruction in Grades 3 to 6" as a basis for identifying each of the methods.
2,065 words (approx. 8.3 pages), 8 sources, APA, £ 36.95
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Abstract
The following paper describes each method in the article by Taylor-Heald, where three paradigms are identified as the traditional, the transitional and the student-oriented. Each of these paradigms is a model for teaching children the basic and fundamental concept of spelling. This paper examines how each method is utilized and also discusses Taylor-Heald's view on each of the methods. After looking at each of the methods separately, the writer examines, briefly, the major differences between the methods. It then discusses the implications of each of the methods, including how each method is used and the benefits of each method. This also includes looking at various other research studies that offer perspectives on the teaching of spelling. Finally the paper concludes by showing how the student-oriented approach does appear to be the most promising approach, just as Taylor-Heald suggests.
From the Paper
"The traditional paradigm, as the name suggests, is the main method of instruction that has been used in the American school system to teach spelling and also to teach the basics of language. The method is based on students being taught vocabulary in the form of words that do not relate to each other. These words are random and have no relationship to each other, or to anything else being taught to the students. The teacher gives these words to the students, with the students expected to memorize them and the students are tested on this at the end of the week.This approach assumes that students know nothing at the beginning and that all information must be given to them. This includes the idea that children have no knowledge of words, sounds or language."
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Theory of Universal Pragmatics, 2002.
The following paper examines and critically analyzes Jorgen Habermas' theory of universal pragmatics.
2,300 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 11 sources, APA, £ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the study of general and universal aspects of language with specific reference to Jorgen Habermas' rules for using and understanding language rationally. The goal of universal pragmatics is to identify and reconstruct conditions of possible understanding. The advantages and disadvantages of Habermas' "Universal Pragmatics" are discussed. It is of the writer's opinion that Habermas' emphasis on systematization and organization at times forces linguistic phenomena into pre-established categories, which leaves little room for nuances, details or humanly necessary embellishments.
From the Paper
"This concept when adequately applied extends across the boundaries of culture and language, e.g. two Englishmen would use the same formulations to communicate in English, as would two Frenchmen-in French." In this seminal work, in the book, "Communication and Evolution of Society," Habermas provides a simple construct for ideal communication (Habermas 1979). Throughout "What is Universal Pragmatics?" he maintains that all the complexities of sentence structures and their utterances are successfully communicated if an original intent is adhered to. Habermas maintains, that each form of communication, direct and otherwise, is to reach understanding. Such a pure communication is only possible if it is conducted-in a nutshell-clearly and honestly."
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Getting People on the Same Page in Communication, 2002.
This paper presents a discussion regarding the importance of teaching English to non-English speaking people for the purpose of conflict resolution.
1,100 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 6 sources, APA, £ 21.95
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Abstract
Just how important teaching English to non-English speaking people is discussed in this paper. The author argues that for the sake of resolving conflicts, it is very important. The author uses several examples of common conflicts in which the understanding of the English language would have made communication much easier.
From the Paper
"The most important reason that there needs to be a universal language for conflict resolution is that without one, people are left to make assumptions which can be dangerous. Assumptions about what someone meant or how things were interpreted can cause the conflict to deepen. Even with an interpreter there is no guarantee that the translation will be smooth or exact. Teaching English to non-English speaking residents will remove the middle person and allow those in conflict to resolve their own issues(Pean, 1999). "
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The Development of Old French, 2001.
This paper examines the development of the Old French language before and after the Oaths of Strasbourg.
2,800 words (approx. 11.2 pages), 7 sources, MLA, £ 46.95
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Abstract
An insight into the history of Old French and how this language was developed and influenced by Latin. It examines the effect of the Oaths of Strasbourg on the growth of Old French as well as different considerations which effected Old French.
From the Paper
"The evolution of Old French language began in 52 Before Christ when Julius Cesar held the power over the continents of the Gaul. According to Columbian Encyclopedia, Gaul was under the Roman Empire in the first and second century. With the strong influence it brought, Latin spoken by the Romans gradually replaced the Gaelic, a Celtic language as the Gaul's mother tongue, for a long time. Latin became the national language, spoken widely among people and became the root of recently spoken languages through Europe, including English (Le Tacon). "
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Reader and 'So I am Glad', 2004.
This paper discusses whether the reader exists independently of the text or if the text creates its reader in A. L. Kennedy's 'So I am Glad'.
3,046 words (approx. 12.2 pages), 12 sources, MLA, £ 49.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that Jennifer M. Wilson, the narrator of A.L. Kennedy's 'So I am Glad', has decided to become a voice. The writer discusses that 'So I am Glad' is a romance, but not one of a common type. Besides being an impossible spiritual and sensual journey, it reveals itself as a complex postmodernist work of meta-fiction. The writer notes that Kennedy offers to her readers a meditation on the very power of writing and looks at how it brings her narrator Jennifer from indifference to passionate and compassionate love and self-discovery. The writer of this essay discusses that despite Kennedy's refusal to be pinned down to any literary 'philosophy', the richness of the novel appears to be a perfect example of showing the place that the reader takes in literature in general and, in particular, in relation with the text and its author. Thus, the text being an end in itself from a postmodernist eye, the author shows how independent the reader exists towards the literary text. However, since the text is a medium between the author and its reader, one is drawn to ask whether the author creates the reader or whether the reader is, indeed, another performer of the text.
From the Paper
"Jennifer's possessive claim of these very specific moments of inviolability or privacy intensifies the text's self-referentiality, and Jennifer's self-consciousness of being a writer. This almost constant interaction between the intended reader and the text, with the reader entirely created out of the writer's mind, allows us to show the extent to which the reader is present, not only in the writer's mind, but also in the literary text itself. The text, at least in these instances, is what produces the reader. The reader is included within the text and, to some extent, is part of the narrative.
"Since Kennedy's novel So I am Glad is a metafictional work, disclosing to its reader the keys of its own artificial construction, its own textuality, it allows us, through a postmodernist reading of the text, to understand how the writer-text-reader relationship works."
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Samuel Beckett's "Endgame", 2003.
This paper looks at how understanding the social and political context of the time of Samuel Beckett's play "Endgame" enhances the significance of the play's meaning.
2,298 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 13 sources, MLA, £ 39.95
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Abstract
The paper examines how the play "Endgame" is related to reality and discusses how it is haunted by the prospect of universal death. The paper looks at how "Endgame" is a play on language and shows how, ultimately, the play is a manifestation of the social and political context of the time.
From the Paper
"Samuel Beckett's theatre is widely assumed as a no-man's-land, a place at the end of the world, devoid of any humanity. The impression we are left with at the end of his plays is that of a timeless theatre, showing an essential and absolute humanity, which is hardly prone to historical upheavals, or even to historical variations. This is also true of Endgame, Beckett's third play, first written in French and performed at the Royal Court Theatre, London, in 1957. The play is haunted by the prospect of universal death. Indeed, Beckett imprisons his characters in a room which might be the only place on earth to house human life."
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Language Planning, 2003.
Presents a theoretic view of language planning (LP).
3,538 words (approx. 14.2 pages), 4 sources, APA, £ 55.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that language policy is a big problem in developing countries, especially in the Maghreb world, which was under the French rule: Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The paper defines language planning (LP) as the activity of preparing a normative orthography, grammar and dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogeneous speech community and relates that language planning includes language policy. The paper then discusses corpus, status and acquisition planning using examples mainly from the French Academy and the Hebrew revival movement.
Table of Contents:
A Theoretical View on Language Planning (LP)
Introduction
Definitions and Elements of LP
The Term "Language Planning"
Two Different Definitions of LP
Elements of Language Planning
Types of Language Planning
Corpus Planning
Status Planning
Acquisition Planning
Examples of Language Planning and Language Planning Policies
The "Academie Francaise" as an Example of Corpus Planning
The Promotion of Hebrew in Palestine as an Example of Status Planning
Examples of Language Planning Policies: Policy A, B, C.....
From the Paper
"Richelieu established the AF. In 1624, he became first minister in Louis XIII. Richelieu was so close to artists, writers in particular. In 1629, a group of men interested in language and literature started to meet at a rich man's house just for conversation. Richelieu wanted to transform this club into an official institution serving the country. He formed this group into an official body. He had a political purpose. He wanted them to work on his behalf by supporting his policies, which is the main reason behind his finding of the AF. "
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The Portuguese Language (O Portugues), 2008.
A linguistic description of the Portuguese language, which ranks in sixth in the overall number of speakers of any language.
2,730 words (approx. 10.9 pages), 7 sources, APA, £ 45.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that Portuguese is an Indo-European language, which originated from the Vulgar Latin about two thousand years ago. The author points out that, as Christians conquered the peninsula, a lot of the grammar and words used in Spain and France greatly influenced the modern Portuguese language although the morphology and syntax were only slightly changed. The paper reports that Portuguese is a pluricentric language, which varies from its geographic locations but remains one language. The author describes its phonology, vowels, morphology, syntax, lexicon and pragmatics.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
History
Phonology
Vowels in Portuguese
Morphology and Syntax
Lexicon
Pragmatics
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Notice that there are actually three ways that one may say, "You make" in Portuguese. Vos fazeis is actually very archaic and is only used in Holy Scriptures or when praying to God. If you dare mention this, people would look at you very weird. It is similar to the use of ye in English which no one uses anymore (I hope not!). Now depending whether one is in Portugal or Brazil, the use of tu and voce varies. In the Portuguese spoken in Portugal, this dialect is considered as an honorable title. The pronoun voce is used when speaking to older people or when showing respect."
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In Defense of "Like", 2006.
This paper defends the current popular usage of the word "like" in the quotative format and as a hedge word.
1,400 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 25.95
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Abstract
This paper describes the use of the word "like" in its two least popular meaning among English lovers and most common form among English speakers: the quotative, as in "and I was like, 'what?'", and the hedge word, as in "I like bombed on that exam". The author points out that, although she feels embarrassed about how her use of the word affects people's perception of her intelligence, she feels very strongly, as others do, that the current uses of the word "like" have very real, even innovative, purposes. The paper relates that the ability of "like" to indirectly quote or relay speech, behavior and thought with one word sets it apart from other words with similar functions. The author states that she sometimes uses the word to be purposely and purposefully imprecise. The paper concludes that informal usages of the English language help communicate sincerity and friendliness and demonstrate a natural process for the standard to eventually become archaic.
From the Paper
"But, despite what Lily Thorns may like to believe, the quotative and hedge-word "like" were not born of wealthy teenaged girls from Southern California in the 1980s. In the 1962 novel "A Clockwork Orange" by English author Anthony Burgess, the hedge-work "like" is also frequently used by the narrator, Alex - a young man of high intelligence, in fact. The usage is not exclusively American. I also notice it was used by my aunt and uncle, both of whom are in their 50s and were born and raised in Manchester (as was Anthony Burgess, for that matter), as a hedge word--although usually at the end of their sentences, much like the hedge-phrase "as it were". "
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The Etymology and Semantic Shift of "Humour", 2007.
An explanation of how the word humour has evolved and changed over time.
1,384 words (approx. 5.5 pages), 1 source, MLA, £ 25.95
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Abstract
This paper describes the evolution of the word humour from its early appearance as a Latin noun through the ages with several references to works by Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare.
From the Paper
""Humour," according to Adrian Room's Dictionary of Changes in Meaning, is one of the most renowned words in the English language for its radical semantic shift (143). It is a descendant of the Latin noun umor, "moisture," which is related to the verbs umere "to be wet" and uvescere "to become wet"; and adjective umidus "wet" (Shipley, 441). The addition of the letter h to the beginning of the word is the result of an incorrect folk association to the Latin humus, which means earth or soil (Klein, 750; Harper).
"Its Indo-European root is ugw- and wegw- for "wet, moist, to sprinkle" (Klein, 750; Claiborne). The Old Norse wegw led to the expression "in its wake" from the Germanic *wakw- , "wet spot," referring to a crack in the ice. It has been suggested that its suffixed zero-grade form *ugw-sm is the base of the Latin humere. The suffixed zero-grade form *ugw-no led to the Greek hygros, "wet, liquid" (Watkins). Other words coming from the same root include the Armenian oyc, "fresh," and the Old Norse vokr, "moist, damp" (Klein, 750)."
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Revival of the Kaurna Language, 2007.
This paper focuses on why the Kaurna language was revived and how it was accomplished.
1,781 words (approx. 7.1 pages), 9 sources, APA, £ 31.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that the Kaurna language is one of the main languages spoken by Indigenous peoples in and around the Adelaide region of Southern Australia. The writer notes that after the colonisation of South Australia in 1836, the population of the Kaurna people declined rapidly as they suffered from the effects of disease and displacement. Subsequently their language and culture experienced serious hardship. The writer looks at the importance of the Kaurna language to its people and by studying the techniques used to awaken the language from its dormancy. The writer points out that the revival of the Kaurna language is still an ongoing process, though much progress has already been made. Kaurna is now taught at all levels of education throughout Southern Australia. The writer concludes that whilst many steps have already been laid out to ensure the survival of Kaurna, it is up to future generations to take them and keep the language alive.
Outline:
Why Revive a 'Dormant' Language?
The Kaurna Language Revival
Resurrecting the Kaurna Phonology
Kaurna for a New Generation
From the Paper
"These texts were essentially a written record of the language of the Kaurna people for the English speaking colonists to read. Whilst there was little public interest in the text at its time of publication, even more so when the use of Kaurna was forbidden by government bodies in subsequent years, this publication has become a major tool in the revival of Kaurna for today's generation."
"The reclamation of the Kaurna language began around 1990 with the writing of six songs in a National Aboriginal Languages Program (NALP)
funded songwriters workshop. This was the first time the language had been used again in a creative manner and these songs were subsequently published into a songbook.
"Several workshops on the Kaurna language were held over the following years along with the introduction of Kaurna to some South Australian schools, helping the language to gain recognition once again."
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Swimming in the Morning, 2005.
This paper examines the poem "Morning Swim" by Maxine Kumin.
924 words (approx. 3.7 pages), 1 source, MLA, £ 17.95
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Abstract
In this article the writer dissects Maxine Kumin's poem "Morning Swim" and notes that this poem has great imagery and rhyme scheme. It is noted that Kumin is a favorite poet of the writer's due to the way that she uses mundane experiences as a vehicle for serious ideas. The writer looks at the heart of the poem and then discusses the poet's word usage and use of rhyme. The writer maintains that Kumin definitely lives up to her reputation with her word usage and rhythm and concludes that it was interesting to delve in and draw out truths in Kumin's work.
From the Paper
"Her poetry reads more as a conversation, its deeper meaning imbedded in the word choices she makes than the image she describes. Her rhyming of the couplets in "Morning Swim" was done skillfully to reduce the singsong impression of the words by using enjambments and slant rhymes. She gives the nature around her, personas of its own. For example, allowing the fish to sing her name or treating the lake as an intimate lover. The meter of the poem also enjoins with the imagery to enhance the readers feeling of swimming. The metaphors, simplicity, and the technical tricks it employs give "Morning Swim" a memorable feeling of deeper meaning. "
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The implications of Metaphors on Organisational Life, 2007.
An overview of the use of metaphors in organisational situations.
3,925 words (approx. 15.7 pages), 8 sources, APA, £ 59.95
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Abstract
This paper aims to critically review, examine and explain how different metaphors impact organisational life, with the help of academic text and examples from personal experience. This author has carried this out by focusing on three commonly used organisational metaphors. The paper has been roughly divided into four sections with the author concluding that while metaphors use evocative images to help us understand situations, if taken too seriously they can eventually lead to managers making poor decisions.
Outline:
Machine Metaphor
Organism Metaphor
Culture Metaphor
Illustration of Metaphors through my Organisational Experience
From the Paper
"Machine metaphor is arguably the most popular metaphor used in organisations and effectively the most influential metaphor to have influenced organisational life. This metaphor portrays an organisation as a machine, which is made up of several different parts, with each part playing a defined role, with the ultimate aim of achieving organisational goals and objectives. This mechanistic aspect is inherent in virtually all organisational functions, starting from planning, organising, and implementing to evaluation and control. In this concept people are considered as mere operators of machines and the focus is on maximum efficiency and productivity.
"Organisations that are designed and operated as if they were machines are usually called "bureaucracies" (Morgan, G, 1998). In mechanistic organisations things tend to be monotonous and predictable, such as arrival time, time for breaks, change over of employees, etc. Very often the work tends to be mechanical and repetitive, especially at the lower levels. Two of the greatest examples of the mechanistic model are Ford and McDonalds. During the industrial revolution, "the assembly line" by Ford proved to be a great success, and in the current times McDonalds has set up a great example by "mechanising the organisation of all its franchise outlets throughout the world, to produce a uniform product". (Morgan, G, 1998)."
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