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Language Differences between Men and Women, 2006.
A paper looking at how males and females communicate and how verbal and non-verbal messages are developed and sent.
1,580 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 12 sources, APA, £ 36.95
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Abstract
This paper examines several studies concerning the differences between male and female communication. The paper concludes that there are both differences and similarities in how men and women communicate but the differences, while they may be subtle, have judgemental consequences. Such consequences, the paper notes, can be seen in the way that female speakers are rated higher on socio-intellectual status and aesthetic quality while males are rated higher on dynamism.
From the Paper
"Status is also designated in this power scheme. Many of the "women's language" such as politeness and raising the ends of sentences is found more in low- versus high-status individuals. "Women's language" seems to be more often used when individuals are unemployed, housewives or have lower jobs than well-educated people and professionals (O'Barr & Atkins, 1980). Subordinates share higher rates of speech associated with women than they do their managers. Single male parents use language more similar to single mothers than married fathers. It is recognized, then, that language is not just a matter of gender dominance, but goes hand-in-hand with status as well."
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Bilingual Education, 2005.
Reviews the article "Opposition to Bilingual Education: Prejudice or the Defense of Realistic Interests?" by L. Huddy and D.O. Sears.
755 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 1 source, APA, £ 18.95
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Abstract
The paper argues that predicting the effect of bilingual education on student outcomes, using the work by Huddy and Sears ("Opposition to Bilingual Education: Prejudice or the Defense of Realistic Interests?") is problematical. The authors investigated the bases for parental prejudice against bilingual education but they did not investigate in any detail what the educational outcomes might be for the children involved. The paper shows that the authors made only incidental reference to the possibility that Latino, African-American or other minority students-or even Anglos-might experience diminished educational outcomes in the presence, or for that matter absence, of bilingual education. In fact, they were not investigating outcomes per se; they were investigating the source of prejudice.
From the Paper
"Huddy and Sears concluded that the deepest opposition to bilingual education resulted from perceived realistic interest. They found that both parents and non-parents who perceived that programs were in competition for limited resources for education were most likely to oppose bilingual education. In addition, they noted that those parents who believed bilingual education was not of benefit to their children also opposed it."
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Ecological Systems Theory, 2006.
A paper on ecological systems theory and how it applies to language development.
2,407 words (approx. 9.6 pages), 5 sources, APA, £ 52.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the ecological systems theory is a psychological framework that attempts to explain the forces that impact child development. The paper further explains how this theory is particularly relevant to the communication, speech and language acquisition process in children.
From the Paper
"Developmental psychology studies the change and growth of humans over the lifespan. One particular philosophy, called ecological systems theory, is especially influential in this field. It holds that a combination of biological, social, and personal characteristics control human development. This theory can be applied to numerous phenomena although early communication, speech, and language development affords a notably informative illustration."
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Second Language Acquisition, 2006.
An overview of three methods that are utilized in second language research.
4,572 words (approx. 18.3 pages), 22 sources, MLA, £ 84.95
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Abstract
As the world has become increasingly more global, interests in second language acquisition has also increased. More specifically second language acquisition as it pertains to the second language classroom has become a focal point. This paper examines conversation analysis, stimulated recall and the "Think Aloud Method". It compares the different approaches to theory and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each system.
Outline
Introduction
Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Classrooms
Conversation Analysis
Analysis Utilizing Conversational Analysis
Advantages and Disadvantages of Conversation Analysis
Stimulated Recall Methodology
Utilizing the Stimulated Recall Method
Case Study Using Stimulated Recall
Advantages and Disadvantages
Think Aloud Method
Advantages and Disadvantages
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Although the stimulated recall method has been utilized quite often in second language research Gass and Mackey (2000) report that the method has been severely criticized throughout its history. According the authors the most problematic aspect of stimulated recall is whether or not the findings actually reflect the though processes of the participants. For instance the authors explain that the retrospective report compiled by the researcher "is directly accessible and available for verbal reporting. This assumption is better justified with only a small amount of intervening time between the event and the recall. "
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The Pun: A Linguistic Resource, 2005.
This paper examines the pun as a linguistic resource for advertising.
3,380 words (approx. 13.5 pages), 15 sources, MLA, £ 68.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that, as a linguistic resource, the pun is so effective in performing the ludic function of language to the extent of being among the most effective tools in graphic advertising. The author points out that the use of puns is truly ancient, but their use in print media is a fairly modern phenomenon, representing an effective method of engaging a reader's attention by inviting the reader to become an active part of the process. The paper stresses that there is a risk of having the pun miss its target because some readers simply turn the page if they do not understand an ad at first glance; but, on the other hand, inviting the reader to examine the ad a little further relates to the pun's success in print advertisements. Table, illustration and chart.
Table of Contents
Review and Analysis
Background and Overview
Conclusion
From the Paper
"To this end, this paper attempts to present the analysis of advertisements published in the graphic media in the UK and in the USA, from the perspective of Austin's Speech Act Theory (1975). This Speech Act Theory argues that when we use language we are performing certain acts. There are three acts which utterances can be said to perform: A locutionary act, an illocutionary act and a perlocutionary act. This paper will take locutionary acts performed by the text in graphic advertisements and it will attempt to identify the illocutionary force. The perlocutionary effect is beyond the scope of this paper. The guiding principles which, according to Grice, govern talk and which are so thoroughly studied in conversational analysis (C.A.), apply to texts used in graphic advertising as well. Studying Grice's Maxims enables an addressee to draw inferences as to the implicatures of such utterances. Every utterance, whether it abides by or flouts these maxims, has both entailment and implicature, which this paper intends to explore."
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Faith, Theology, Belief and Spirituality, 2005.
A paper examining the differences between faith, theology, belief and spirituality.
1,079 words (approx. 4.3 pages), 2 sources, APA, £ 26.95
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Abstract
In en effort to explain the differences between faith, theology, belief and spirituality, this paper considers these terms in their commonly expressed linguistic forms, as they occur in our daily lives. By examining the common usage of these terms, the author of the paper attempts to impart an understanding of their subtle and not so subtle differences.
From the Paper
"Take, for example, the notion of belief. I might say that I believe in evolution, that I believe that human beings evolved from primates. In other words, one can believe in a supposition that may or may not be correct that has nothing to do with conventional religious structures and institutions, or even, if one accepts fundamentalist interpretations of Genesis, goes against such religious suppositions. I might also say that I believe that my father will arrive around six in the evening to pick me up from school. Belief thus connotes something that one thinks is probable or likely-I believe in God, I believe that McDonald's is better than Burger King, I believe-or do not believe-I will get a better job after graduating from college."
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Discourse Analysis, 2005.
Explains what discourse analysis means and looks the many different approaches to the subject.
2,681 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 57.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that there is more than one approach to the subject of discourse analysis and that these approaches are very different with regard to their focus, purpose and techniques.
From the Paper
"As far as focus is concerned, discourse analysis may concentrate on the conclusions of the discourse itself or on the social processes and structure in accordance to which the discourse is constructed. Systemic linguistics approaches are appropriate for the first category, as there is always a very well defined boundary between language and society, with emphasis on the former. On the other hand, the common discourse analysis in sociology and social psychology has a broader focus and usually rejects the artificial distinction between discursive and social actions - since "all discourse is action and all action is discursive"."
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English Structure vs. Russian Translation, 2005.
A report on the structure of the English and Russian languages as they pertain to the unique skill of translation.
3,107 words (approx. 12.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 64.95
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Abstract
This report focuses on differences between the Russian and English languages in terms of word and object meanings, direct translations, sayings, rules in grammar and other critical lexical rules such slang and idiom use.
Introduction
History of Russian in America
Lexicography
Semasiology
Russian Structure
Translation by Dictionary
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The actions of Post World War II Soviet Union and World War II itself were major reasons for Russian becoming a common course in American colleges. Prior to 1940, there were less than twenty universities in America offering Russian language programs and less than fifty percent of those had a true Russian/Slavic department. Other tell-tale signs of the popularity of Russian in American schools can be demonstrated by the fact that there were only three Russian doctoral programs at the time of post World War II Europe. However, relations with the Soviet Union grew as a result of the war which also had the dramatic affect of increasing an interest in the Russian language. The war therefore increased the number of universities in the United States offering Russian to over one hundred ninety in the 1950's."
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African-American Vernacular English, 2005.
A discussion of the roots and future of African-American Vernacular English (AAVE).
1,458 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 34.95
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Abstract
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is the dialect of English used by most African-Americans in familiar and informal settings . Although the language spoken by African-Americans in different parts of the United States exhibits some regional variation, the dialect has fairly uniform characteristics. It has a well-formed grammar and an interesting, though controversial, history. Dismissed as 'bad English' by some, it has evoked considerable debate interest among academics and linguists many of whom recognize its importance, especially as a medium of instruction for the African-Americans. This paper explores the origins of AAVE, discusses whether the dialect is a creole, investigates its similarity with other creoles and examines its grammar.
From the Paper
"There is some controversy about the origin of AAVE. Some people believe that the Black people, who were brought to America as slaves, picked up English from the 'English-speaking' Southerners they came in contact with. The proponents of this theory, also known as the dialect hypothesis, note that the AAVE and the English spoken by the American Southerners have many features in common, such as the Southern Vowel Shift, vowel lowering, and double modals. (Sidnell, background) The theory contends that the white Southerners in the 17th century spoke a distinct "Virginian" dialect that had its origins in a family of regional dialects spoken in the south and west of England in counties such as Sussex, Surrey, Hampshire, Dorset, Devon, Wiltshire, Oxford and Gloucester during the 17th century. (Williams, 24) Although the use of such a dialect in polite conversation quickly disappeared in England by the end of the 18th century, most of its characteristics persisted in the American South. According to this theory, the 'incorrect' English picked up by the Blacks from the Southern whites was passed down through subsequent generations. In other words, this theory (also known as the 'dialect hypothesis') about the origins of AAVE contends that the present form of the dialect is simply "bad English" and has nothing to do with the native, Western African languages of the slaves. In answer to the question as to why this type of English does not currently exist among its originators, the proponents of this theory argue that most people avoid using "bad" English when they get educated. They contend that the Englishmen from the south and west counties of Britain and the white Southerners discontinued the use of such an 'incorrect' form of English after being educated; the African Americans continued to persist with such 'bad' as they did not benefit from similar education. (Ibid.)"
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Constitutional Analysis, 2004.
A linguistic analysis of a section from the beginning of the "United States Declaration of Independence".
1,011 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 1 source, MLA, £ 25.95
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Abstract
This paper explores the linguistic analysis of specific words from a paragraph from the beginning of the "Declaration of Independence". The paper provides a definition for time orientation. The paper also analyzes the grammar and style of the excerpt. The paper examines what the general assessment of the document is regarding the American declaration and explores how it orients into culture.
From the Paper
"The Founding Fathers used powerful verbs like ike "hold," "secure," "institute," "alter," and "organizing" (Congress, 1776) to convey a message. It is almost as if they are taking a stand against the evil of the world. They did this knowing strong grammar would be essential in creating a foundation for freedom. When speaking of "what-if" scenarios like "government becomes destructive" or " it is the right" (Congress, 1776), the passive voice cannot help but be used. Still it used repetitiously to convey poetic rhythm and strength. Bold use of words makes this selection almost lyrical and captivates, mandates attention. Still the voice is based out of a solid religious belief of a Creator. Because the Creator is mentioned the style of the work can be considered Biblical or based on religious beliefs. Use of "endowed" implies that the Creator has provided to man. Also the phrase "government becomes destructive" alludes to outside forces like evil wreaking havoc. Use of the word "destructive" can also conjure imagery of the destruction of the Temple."
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Views on Language, 2005.
An analysis of George Orwell's "Politics and the English Language"and James Baldwin's "If Black English Isn't a Language, Then Tell Me What It Is".
783 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 2 sources, MLA, £ 19.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes and compares these two works by Orwell and Baldwin about language and how language serves as a tool that expresses more than just speech. The paper explains that, in Orwell's opinion, language is an instrument that reflects culture and evolves as culture declines, while in Baldwin's view, language emerges to fit a societal need.
From the Paper
"Both writers understand that language evolves and reflects society and culture. Orwell states that "language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes" (Orwell). In reference to African American language, Baldwin seems to support Orwell's assertion, adding that the role of language "reveals the speaker. Language also, far more dubiously, is meant to define the other--and in this case, the other is refusing to be defined by a language that has never been able to recognize him" (Baldwin). Both writers understand that language is a process that develops to express the personality of its culture."
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Psycholinguistics, 2005.
A look at the topic of language acquisition and how and when humans learn a language.
3,447 words (approx. 13.8 pages), 19 sources, APA, £ 69.95
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Abstract
This paper presents an overview of studies on language acquisition and the relevance of critical periods of learning. The paper reports on studies done on the brain and actual learning situations, which have shed light on this topic and the implications of these studies.
From the Paper
"The most concentrated period of language development is during the first three years of a human?s life when the brain is developing and maturing. The first stages of communication take place right after birth when an infant learns that a cry will bring responses such as nourishment. The newborns also start recognizing essential sounds in their immediate environments such as their parent?s voice. As they become older, children begin to learn the structure of their language. By six months of age, most recognize the basic sounds of their native language and are able to make simple repetitive sounds or phonemes such as ?ma ma? or ?ba ba.? By the age of two, they can form short sentences and recognize symbols such as pictures in a book. By three or four, they can clearly make themselves understood, understand concepts that are near them or out of sight, and even read a letter or two or short words (ibid)."
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?Alexander the False Prophet?, 2005.
An application of the ideas from Lucian?s ?Alexander The False Prophet? to modern-day religion.
803 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 1 source, MLA, £ 20.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how the story of Lucian?s Alexander has many similarities to modern-day Christianity and how Christianity has been shown to have borrowed many ideas from other pagan religions in its infancy, so these correlations may or may not be coincidence. It looks at how the foundation of Christianity, Jesus Christ?s rebirth, is an almost identical story to the known religious scam established by Alexander, as described by Lucian.
From the Paper
"Lucian?s account was very scandalous and basically has condemned Alexander to remain forever in history as a religious swindler who simply purchased a large snake and then choose a group of people to scam. The ploy, as described by Lucian, was that Alexander and his cronies planted bronze tablets, created fake talking serpents and claimed that his serpent had descended to earth from a godly past. Lucian detailed how well thought out the plan was and how Alexander used official looking documentation and even baby snakes thought to be hatched from goose eggs to carry out his deceitful objectives. In effect, the scheme hatched by Alexander entailed advertising agents, tainted government officials and lie after lie which in turn fooled everyone. As P.T. Barnum pointed out, ?There?s one born every minute!""
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Noam Chomsky, 2005.
Synopsis of the life and career of Noam Chomsky.
1,698 words (approx. 6.8 pages), 7 sources, MLA, £ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper begins with a brief biographical look at the life of linguist and philosopher, Noam Chomsky, and then proceeds to examine his contributions to both of these fields, the main theme of scientific realism evident in all of his work, and early influences on his political and social views.
Introduction
Influences
Linguistics
Ethics and Society
From the Paper
"Noam Chomsky?s contribution to linguistics and philosophy, as well as contemporary theoretical and political thought, is extensive. He received numerous awards and accolades, specifically for his work in linguistics. Chomsky was born in Philadelphia in 1928. As the son of Russian immigrants he was influenced by their belief in pacifism. His early education took place at a progressive school as well as at Philadelphia Central High school. He later attended the University of Pennsylvania where he studied mathematics, philosophy and linguistics. He completed his PhD in Linguistics in 1955 and was appointed Professor at the the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1976."
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