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Bilingual Language Development, 2004.
An exploration of the process of double language acquisition by children.
2,676 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 11 sources, MLA, £ 57.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how there are several different ways to expose children to a second language. It looks at how some children are exposed to two languages since birth and how others are exposed to a second language once they enter a school program. It discusses how the process of double language acquisition is not so smooth and how there are a few discrepancies in fluency and language confusion to be taken into account.
Outline
Introduction
How Children Learn Two Languages
Stages of Development
Code Switching
Language Mixing
Two Languages, One Sentence: Not a Sign of Confusion
Language Imbalance
Language Loss and Semilingualism
Conclusion
From the Paper
"For some bilingual children, code switching is a normal language phenomenon. While some children acquiring a second language appear to confuse the two languages at first, code switching is a normal aspect of second language acquisition. Young bilingual children tend to insert single items from one language into the other (McClure, 1977), primarily to resolve ambiguities and clarify statements. Children over nine and adults, however, tend to switch languages at the phrase or sentence level, typically to convey social meanings. Studies of code switching in adults show it to be a sophisticated, rule-governed communicative device used to achieve goals such as conveying emphasis or establishing cultural identity."
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Germanic and English Language, 2004.
A discussion on the influence of the Germanic tongue on English vocabulary and grammar.
1,848 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 12 sources, MLA, £ 42.95
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Abstract
This paper focuses on how the English tongue was derived from Germanic by examining the similarities between the structure and vocabulary of Old and Middle English and German. It looks at how Anglo-Saxon was an inflected language with a structure that is still retained by modern German speakers, coupled with word gender, past participle formation and the process of compounding. It explores through a literature review of works such as "Beowulf" and the Anglo-Saxon poem "The Seafarer" how the English that we speak today essentially evolved under the influence of many languages and how the Germanic tongue was perhaps one of the most instrumental in its formation.
From the Paper
"On perusal of an Anglo-Saxon text such as Beowulf it would seem that the modern English translation uses far more words. The Germanic influence on Old English meant that it was a synthetic language structured on the inflection of nouns and adjectives for four cases in the singular and four in the plural. Through the inflection of Old English one could distinguish the job a word did in a sentence by its ending, regardless of its position. For example, the difference between the Modern English sentences, (i) the woman saw the man, and (ii) the man saw the woman is a matter of word order."
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The Evolution of Writing, 2004.
An exploration of the journey from ancient writing systems to the Greek alphabet.
2,821 words (approx. 11.3 pages), 6 sources, APA, £ 60.95
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Abstract
A history of the written word, examining writing from its Sumerian origins through the development of the Greek alphabet. The focus is the shift from pictographic characters to a phonetic alphabet. This paper discusses the Old Canaanite, Phoenician, Egyptian, Hebrew, and Aramaic scripts as well.
From the Paper
"The calling and constant challenge of the poet has been to express, in writing, the highly dynamic and abstractly imaginal feeling of the human condition. Similarly, individuals have long attempted to preserve facets of life for convenience, future reference, or posterity. Writing, now a virtual necessity, was not used until the advent of civilizations, when life became complex enough that memory could not keep track of all of those things one needed to remember. It is a much younger art than that of the spoken language ? which has existed for tens of thousands of years ? but has come far from the early days of writing to today. The first forms of writing are results of the ancient Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations."
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English-Only Policies in the American Workplace, 2002.
Presents guidelines and suggestions for alternatives to the English-only policy in workplaces throughout the United States.
4,850 words (approx. 19.4 pages), 36 sources, APA, £ 88.95
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Abstract
The debate over whether or not English-only policies are justified in the American workplace is sure to continue; however, there is no clear-cut guidelines to determine whether or not a company should have an English-only policy. The best advice to date is to limit the implementation of an English-only policy unless there is a clear business necessity that presents justification for having one. This paper presents an overview of the English-only debate in the United States, including background information and arguments made by proponents and opponents. The paper closes with a set of guidelines for organizations deciding to either maintain or implement English-only policies and recommended alternatives to English-only policies in the American workplace.
From the Paper
"English-only is an extremely broad term. For the purposes of this paper English-only policies are the entire spectrum of language policies enforced in the workplace that either promote the usage of English or restrict the usage of non-English languages in some way. In the broader English-only debate there are other terms used to differentiate the specific type of policies enforced. In governmental legislation, an English-only law would be a law allowing ??only?? English usage and no usage of other languages. On the contrary, an Official English policy or law would make English the official language of use, but not restrict the usage of languages other than English. The fact that many individuals involved in English-only debates are using the same terminology to refer to different types of policies adds to the confusion. It also helps explain why, in the court rulings, it is almost impossible to provide a clear definition of why certain policies are legal and others are illegal (Hoffman, 2001, p. 3). In the United States, neither the constitution nor the federal law codifies English as the nation??s official language (Santoro, 1999, p. 890). So contrary to belief of many, English is not the official language of the United States. However, twenty-three states have active Official English statutes and others are pending (Crawford, 2002). But even these statutes vary enormously. Some state statutes simply declare English as the official language of the state in sort of a symbolic gesture; much the same way state birds are named (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002). Other states, such as Arizona, which has the, ??the most restrictively worded official-English law?? (Arington, 1991), take their statutes much more seriously. Some state and local language laws have gone as far as to restrict the governments from providing emergency services such as police lines in non-English languages (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002)."
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Body Language, 2003.
A look into sociolinguistics and how to read nonverbal messages.
1,307 words (approx. 5.2 pages), 7 sources, MLA, £ 31.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at human communications and explains why they are more complicated than surface value. Semantics, meanings, and nonverbal cues are often very hard for people to pick up on. The kind of gestures and faces that people make while speaking can have drastic influence on how the message is interpreted by others. The writer looks at the physical, verbal, and linguistic issues.
From the Paper
"Communication in one way or another has been around longer than any of us can imagine. Although the first interactions among and between animals were probably grunts and growls, without specific interpretations for the sounds, body language probably helped the receiving animals decipher the sounds into an understandable message. For instance, if primate A saw primate B who appeared to be searching for a meal, primate A may grunt to get B?s attention, then point or make a gesture towards a source of food. It is believed by many researchers that sign language came before spoken language as we know it today. Today?s primates, such as chimpanzees, tend to have a strong focus on the arms of other animals, as if recognizing the arms as the primary component of communication, which is one reason that many researchers believe that sign language came first (Zimmer). However, primitive communications were not limited to hand gestures and grunts but included markers, body language, and facial expressions. Today, these non-verbal skills are just as important as they were before the development of spoken language."
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The Significance of Language in Human History, 2003.
Examines how spoken and written languages have influenced the progression of human history and ethnic development.
2,450 words (approx. 9.8 pages), 2 sources, MLA, £ 53.95
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Abstract
This paper emphasize different aspects of language that show it to be an important factor in human history, using the history of the English language as an example. The paper delves deep into the roots of the English language and, point by point, shows that language was crucial in the development of the history of humanity.
From the Paper
"There were several historic events that brought on these changes. One was the work of Shakespeare, who has become a key player in the relating of the history of the English language. Another was the invention of printing, which helped to unify the language under a common reading and writing system, which led to a somewhat unified speaking system. Early Modern English then later on turned into Present Era English, which was helped along and distinguished by several things. First the publication of English dictionaries again helped to unify the language as a whole (Roberts 429). Also the development of an English grammar system, which allowed for a somewhat uniform way of teaching English to children and preserving the language as well (Roberts 429)."
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Cooperative Learning and English Language Learners, 2004.
Presents an overview of why cooperative learning strategy is a preferred instructional strategy in linguistically diverse classrooms.
4,062 words (approx. 16.2 pages), 4 sources, APA, £ 78.95
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Abstract
This research paper begins with an introduction to cooperative learning strategy. The author then chose three articles that show how research over the years examine the way cooperative learning in bilingual classrooms benefits limited English proficient students and what activities teachers can integrate in classrooms in order to meet the needs of diverse language learners. The summary of the articles is followed by a discussion, specific examples of the implications for classroom practice, and ways that one can apply theory to practice.
From the Paper
"It is a challenge today for educators to meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Yet, cooperative learning instructional strategy is found to be one of the most effective ways to promote successful academic achievement, language acquisition, and social development for English language learners. When classroom activities are meaningful, interesting, and relevant, learning is occurring at every level. In successfully organized groups, language minority students will gain proficiency in English, and their native language."
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Babel: History or Myth, 2004.
This is an expository essay, comparing and contrasting the story of the Tower of Babel vs. the evolution of language, with a specific concenration on the English language.
1,459 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 34.95
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Abstract
This essay begins with a quotation taken from the Bible, describing the story of the Tower of Babel. It then proceeds to break down language, from its origins through its evolution down to modern times. It attempts to portray that although Babel is a myth, its premise is true-all language and thus people were cut from essentially the same cloth.
From the Paper
?And the Lord said, ?Indeed the people are one and they all have one language, and this is what they begin to do; now nothing that they propose to do will be withheld from them. Come, let Us go down and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another?s speech.?? (Genesis 11:6-7) It is the humans? ability to communicate through spoken word which differentiates us from our primitive counterparts. The legend of Babel identifies language as the tie that binds a society together and denotes a direct correlation between language and the advancement of a particular society. According to tradition, after the Lord destroyed the world by flood, the sons of Noah, who spoke one language and who were descendants of the same origin, were given the task to repopulate the earth. Perpetually plagued by the sins of Adam, they were driven to build a tower so great that they themselves would be seen as gods. Therefore the Lord debilitated them by removing their ability to communicate with one another, which forced them to diverge into separate, distinct societies. Although the story grossly over simplifies both the complex history of man and the evolution of language, its premise does have some merit. Popular modern languages can be traced ancestrally to a few families. Furthermore, languages that have survived - English as the most prominent example - are considerably indebted to the influence of the powerful societies that spoke them."
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Cultural Constraints of Written Discourse, 2003.
A discussion of the different experiences faced by writers and language professionals based on cultural differences.
7,530 words (approx. 30.1 pages), 19 sources, MLA, £ 118.95
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Abstract
The project addresses not only the cultural assumptions that are involved in texts used in language teaching, but also the kinds of cultural knowledge and skills that are required by language learners for comprehending and interpreting these texts. The paper looks at the way we conceptualize the world and how it seems to acquire some language-and-culture specific features. The project focuses not only on the different conceptualization of knowledge and experience of the world within different cultures, but also on the way it is fixed in language.
Contents:
General Introduction
Theoretical Assumptions
Practical Implications
Method
Data Analysis
Results and Discussion
References
From the Paper
"The variety of interpretations of culture and its relationship to language is a theme of continuing and possibly endless debate. Generally speaking, language is not transparent and neutral. It is a site in which beliefs, values and points of view are produced, encoded and contested. Language thus reflects culture, and language and culture are inseparable. Sherzer (1987) views language as cultural and claims that it is language use in discourse that creates, recreates and modifies culture."
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Impact of Parental Involvement on Children?s Reading, 2004.
A comprehensive analysis of the impact of parental involvement on children?s reading success.
4,859 words (approx. 19.4 pages), 12 sources, APA, £ 88.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the relationship between reading acquisition and reading skills and the degree of parental involvement in a child?s education. This includes participation in homework assignments, attendance at school functions, beliefs about their children?s abilities, and how parents emphasize different aspects of a problem in their instruction, depending on their perceptions of the nature of the task and of their children's competencies in reading acquisition and reading skills. The paper includes relevant tables and figures.
From the Paper
"Although it is well established that parents play a critical role in both their children's academic achievement and their children's socioemotional development, the most basic reason to involve parents in education is student success (Greenfield & Hecht, 2001). According to Sherlie A. Anderson (2000), parental involvement is "any interaction between a parent and child that may contribute to the child's development or direct parent participation with a child's school in the interest of the child" (p. 61). Anderson notes that there are two types of parental involvement in the reading acquisition process. The first type she describes as ?surface involvement?; this level involves one or both parents going to the child?s school to volunteer with administrative tasks or supervising children; the second type of involvement consists of the parents working directly with children (under a teacher's supervision) in reinforcing important reading skills. ?Parents are a resource that must be tapped to the fullest. They do not replace teachers, but they help fill in the gaps created by staff cutbacks. Parents can be used in a variety of meaningful ways in reading programs? (Anderson, 2000, p. 63). Further, parents stand to gain economically by helping their children learn how to read and succeed academically. According to Nabil Ibrahim, Rose-Marie Weber, and Joann Yaworski (2000), when students arrive at college ill-prepared for the rigors of higher education, it frequently results in remedial classes, lower grades, frustrated students (and parents) and consequentially higher drop-out rates. ?It is certainly a concern for those parents who shoulder the high costs of tuition, room and board, and transportation for four years. In addition to students and parents, student success impacts professors and administrators at tuition driven institutions because of its potential effects on retention? (Ibrahim, Weber &Yaworski, 2000, p. 196)."
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Russian Formalism and Translation Studies Scholars, 2004.
Examines and compares two translation methodologies, Russian Formalism and the Translation Studies Scholars.
1,091 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 1 source, MLA, £ 27.95
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Abstract
This paper provides a contrast study of these two translation theories and focuses on their fundamental theoretical assumptions in regard to translations. The contrast also includes a critical analysis of the translation theories. This paper shows that both the Russian Formalist Movement and the Translation Studies Scholars concurred that an ideal translation was supposed to be accurate and consistent as to the receptor language.
From the Paper
"These formalists attempted to isolate and define what they called literariness. They focused upon the things they saw as literary facts. They simply separated literary artifacts from other disciplines like psychology, sociology and cultural history. They literally treated books as being human and in a sense having a life of its own and from that aimed to distinguish what was different. In a new text for example, they worked to see the things that made the text new, creative or innovative."
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?America's Longest War?, 2004.
A review of the book, "America's Longest War: United States and Vietnam 1950-1975", by George C. Herring.
885 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 1 source, MLA, £ 22.95
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Abstract
The paper introduces the book, "America's Longest War: United States and Vietnam 1950-1975", by George C. Herring. Specifically, it discusses three topics from Chapter 6 and then explains each according to what the author writes. It also looks at how the Vietnam War is being compared increasingly to the current war with Iraq and how, as this chapter clearly shows, there are many reasons for the comparison. It shows how President Johnson began fighting an uphill battle as public opinion about the war began to swing against it, just as President Bush is facing growing opposition to the war with Iraq.
From the Paper
""The President's Decisions." President Johnson, partly on advice from such advisers as Clifford, Westmoreland, and Bunker, decided in late 1967 that new forces should not be sent to South Vietnam, and the country should be more prepared to fight on its own. The author writes, "Johnson's advisers agreed that from a long-range standpoint the key to achieving American objectives was south Vietnam's ability to stand on its own" (Herring 239). By early 1968, the President had informed South Vietnam that we would continue to send assistance and equipment, but "limited manpower." During this time, President Johnson also agreed, heavily leaning on the advice of Dean Rusk, that bombing in Vietnam should be cut back, and peace talks should open again with the North Vietnamese. It seems that many of the President's decisions were based on guidance from his closest advisors, and somewhat on public opinion."
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The Etymology of "Pilot", 2004.
Thorough investigation of the etymology of the word "pilot".
1,573 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 36.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a thorough explanation of the origins and development of the word "pilot".
From the Paper
"A word predating aviation potentially by thousands of years, ?pilot? currently connotes the operator of an aircraft. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary defines pilot as ?one who operates or is licensed to operate an aircraft in flight.? All modern English dictionaries, from the Oxford English to the Merriam-Webster to the Gage Canadian, cite aircraft in the first and primary definition of the word pilot, at least in its form as a noun. Pilot is most commonly used as a noun, to denote a person who operates a craft; when the word is used as a transitive verb its meaning tends to be more general. Like many words in the English language, pilot can be traced to more than one linguistic origin: its closest relative seems to be the French word ?pilote,? which itself derives from the Italian word ?pilota.? "
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Tarski?s T Schema, 2004.
This is an analysis of Alfred Tarski?s T schema and how it defines languages as true or false.
2,514 words (approx. 10.1 pages), 12 sources, APA, £ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper explores the theory of Alfred Tarski, which he published in 1936 called "Wahrheitsbegriff". It explains how he investigates the schema of colloquial language and formal language to prove whether such language usage is true in its context and logic or not. It discusses how theorists challenged Tarski's controversial equation, which he presents as his T schema for proving statements/ sentences true. It also states that most theorists disagree with this T schema "p" is true if p.
From the Paper
"Tarski presumes that the rule for this equation is true if p is proven false. To achieve the desired result, he put forward the condition that in the T schema if a sentence is S then p is a replica or in another word S= p. However p will have to be untrue for S to be true. In formal language he perceives that correctness means that there is no ambiguity of truthfulness or untruthfulness of the existence of a sentence/phrase. Inconsistency according to him exists when the parts of the sentence does not conform to the object of the sentence (Tarski 1944)."
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