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Bell?s Inequality, 2002.
An insight into Bell?s Theorem (Bell?s Inequality) of quantum theory.
2,115 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 38.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the work of the physicist John Bell, who's great recognized achievement occurred during the 1960s when he brought new life into the foundations of quantum theory. It examines how Bell demonstrated that discussion of such concepts as 'realism', 'determinism' and 'locality' could be formed into a rigorous mathematical statement, 'Bell's Theorem?, which is capable of experimental test. It looks at how his work has become a point of interest for scientists throughout the world who have found applications not only in quantum theory, but in investigations of the physical universe as well and how current applications of Bell?s Inequality have been found in the development of quantum computing and quantum cryptography.
From the Paper
"Quantum mechanics, however, fails to satisfy Bell's Inequality. He predicts correlations that cross over boundaries that are delineated by the structure of that inequality. Quantum mechanics predicts ?odd? correlations that seem to defy a common, classical conception of reality, and in fact it is for basically this type of reason that Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen argued in 1935 that it was incomplete. The formulation of Bell's Inequality, however, allowed the possibility for determining, through experiment, which was right: quantum mechanics or a local reality theory of the sort Einstein postulated, because it stated what must be the case in our experiments if a locally real theory is correct."
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The Eternal Circle of Time, 2002.
An examination of the apparant "Cause and Effect" order of the universe, and the roll "Time" plays in this order.
2,680 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 6 sources, APA, £ 46.95
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Abstract
This paper attempts to suggest an answer to the question of governace in the universe. It looks at what may seem to be a hirarchial order of "Cause and Effect", which sees every event as the result of a previous one and at the same time the cause of another event. As we go further back into the very begining it appears that "Time" itself is the essence of it all.
From the Paper
"While not a popular theory among modern historians and philosophers, the idea of the Great Chain of Being does offer an explanation for the harmonies and interrelationships that exist within the universe. Nothing can occur without a prior cause, and each preceding event is the reason for the following event. . . Therefore, there must be an overall order, an overall rhyme and reason to the universe and all that is contained within it. Time does indeed have a purpose, and its purpose is the eternal cycle of birth, development, and regeneration."
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Formation of Stars, 2002.
An analysis of the processes involved in the formation of stars.
1,541 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that by viewing the gas that surrounds stars as a dynamic atmosphere, undergoing cycles of materials similar to those that go on in the Earth's own protective gases, astronomers are understanding more and more about the processes involved in the formation of stars. The paper deals with the questions of how the supernova of massive stars affect the formation of stars in the future, why star formation seems to occur in relative bursts, and how long the Milky Way will continue to produce stars.
From the Paper
"Beyond applying the atmospheric model to intergalactic gas, astronomers have also been studying more carefully exactly what components make up the gas and at what temperature these components exist. About 90% of the constituents of intergalactic atmosphere are various forms of hydrogen, with close to 10% being helium, and everything else, from lithium to uranium -- the whole spectrum of the periodic chart -- making up less than 0.1%. The majority of the hydrogen is present as neutral hydrogen, termed H I by astronomers. This form of hydrogen gas is identified by the spectral frequency of the light that it emits, namely 1,420 megahertz. Although scattered throughout the galaxy, the majority of H I is located around the galactic midplane, and forms a gaseous disk about 300 parsecs thick (Reynolds, 2002, p. 40)."
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Isaac Newton, 2002.
A look at the scientific discoveries of Isaac Newton.
606 words (approx. 2.4 pages), 3 sources, APA, £ 12.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by providing a brief biographical overview of Isaac Newton, from his birth in England in 1642 to his groundbreaking scientific theories and discoveries. The paper covers Newton's scientific achievements, starting with the fact that he established a unified theory of approach to modern science. It discusses his discoveries relating to the white light, the telescope and to the field of optics in general. The paper also covers Newton's mathematical achievements in the form of calculus and his most famous discovery of all - gravity.
From the Paper
"Newton?s discoveries in optics were offset by his even more groundbreaking discoveries in pure mathematics and the science of mechanics. One of the most important modern mathematical tools ?The Integral Calculus? was the brainchild of Newton. It need not be mentioned that without this mathematical tool the progress that the scientific community achieved in many disciplines would have been significantly delayed. However Newton?s discoveries in the field of mechanics outweigh all his other accomplishments. Though Galileo had already discovered the first law of motion his theory was based on the movement of objects without any external influence or attraction between them. Newton?s three laws of motion explained the hitherto inexplicable behavior of all physical bodies in motion. Still more astounding was Newton?s discovery of gravity. All these four laws put together explained the mechanical motion of all earthly and heavenly bodies. Newton not only proposed these laws but also ratified them by using the integral calculus."
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The Science of Baseball, 2002.
This paper explores the use of physics in the sport of baseball, claiming that the study of physics contributes to the improvement of the game.
1,060 words (approx. 4.2 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 21.95
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Abstract
The paper begins with some introductory remarks about the science of physics and by attempting to clear up some misconceptions regarding the way that pitchers throw balls. It then turns to discuss the storage of baseballs in a giant humidor and the effect of humidity on the motion of baseballs. It explores the materials used to make baseball bats and looks at their velocity. The paper concludes with an explanation of the new computer system introduced for the 2002 baseball season and a look at the involvement of physicists and engineers in evaluating this system.
From the Paper
"According to some scientists, pitchers would defy the law of physics if the balls were actually thrown the way they were described. These scientist say a curve ball doesn?t actually curve, just appears to do so. They also say a rising fast ball is mislabeled ?since a ball thrown overhand can?t rise (NPR, 1993).? They say players and announcers are incorrect when they say a ball hops, slides or hisses, since it is scientifically impossible, though they will admit a ball can sink a little. Scientists are quick to point out that a waist-high fast ball doesn?t actually rise when it hits your chin, but the hit occurs because the ball doesn?t fall as much as you predict it will. Announcers and players will disagree with these physicists, however, because they accept these concepts on faith and not science (NPR, 1993)."
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Quantum Mechanics, 2002.
An analysis of the development of quantum mechanics, including an outline of the stages which led to the development.
1,847 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 7 sources, APA, £ 34.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the development of quantum mechanics, illustrating its background which began with the classical theory of the atom, continued to Bohr?s simple atomic theory, and was developed further with de Broglie?s wave theory, Heisenberg?s uncertainty principle and Schrodinger?s equation. To further investigate the development of quantum mechanics, each of these stages are looked at in more detail, showing the main ideas that each stage added to the understanding of the atom. This paper shows that quantum mechanics is based on the combination of the ideas of many scientists, with the final acceptance of quantum theory occurring when Schrodinger?s equation tied together previous theories and allowed them to be applied to subatomic particles.
From the Paper
"The classical theory of the atom is based on the model of an atom being made up of a positive nucleus containing protons and neutrons with negatively charged electrons orbiting around this nucleus. This model was first proposed by Rutherford in 1911 who described the atom saying, ?Most of the volume of the atom is empty space in which electrons move around the nucleus.? This basic model of the atom has been expanded on and used to determine how chemicals react with each other, the charges of chemicals and the physical properties of chemicals. While this has involved expanding the theory, the basic understanding of the structure remains the same."
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Isaac Newton, 2002.
This paper discusses the life and work of Isaac Newton.
600 words (approx. 2.4 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 12.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the life and work of Isaac Newton and how his laws and discoveries have ensured that his name is imprinted in the history of science. The author illustrates how Newton is not only one of the greatest scientists but also one of the most influential scientific personalities.
From the Paper
"Isaac Newton was the greatest and the most influential scientist of all times. Born in Woolsthrope, England on a Christmas day in 1642 Newton was a bright child with an incredible mechanical aptitude. Newton entered the Cambridge University when he was eighteen years of age and soon he mastered the science and mathematical concepts of his time and went on to continue his independent research. It was during this period that Newton laid the foundation for the subsequent discoveries that were to revolutionize the scientific world. Newton was conferred the honorable Fellow of Royal Society of London in 1671."
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"The Life of Isaac Newton" by Richard Westfall, 2002.
This paper is a review of "The Life of Isaac Newton" by Richard Westfall, a detailed portrait of the English mathematician, physical scientist, and theologian.
1,565 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 2 sources, £ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper describes the book, "Life of Isaac Newton" by Richard Westfall, which tells chronologically the life of a solitary scholar, Trinity College professor, government administrator and elder statesman of the English scientific community by showing his accomplishments and human weakness. This paper tells the story of the "apple" and points out that Newton may have gotten the idea when he was young but it took many years for him to develop his theories.
From the Paper
"For a number of years, Newton did not publish anything and seemed to immerse himself in the study of chemistry and its "occultist" neighbor, alchemy. Avoiding the more mystical areas of the science, there is no doubt he was searching for both knowledge as well as gold . Newton also was delving into some dangerous theological areas, doubting the existence of the Trinity and attributing it to a corruption of the true earlier Christian religion. Despite holding these beliefs until his death, he successfully kept them a secret, and even managed to be appointed to the Lucasian chair of Trinity College without having to take the usual step of taking on the holy orders. He kept his then-heretical religious beliefs a secret until his deathbed, when he refused to take his final communion "
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Nuclear Energy, 2002.
An indepth overview of nuclear energy and its uses.
4,609 words (approx. 18.4 pages), 10 sources, APA, £ 69.95
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Abstract
This paper examines one of the most promising energy resources being currently explored, nuclear energy. It shows that the idea of using nuclear energy is being used to scare mankind, because at the time the only connection one had with nuclear energy was nuclear weapons. In recent years however, there have been efforts to explore the use of nuclear energy for the purpose of sustaining life. While there are questions about its safety and use, it is quickly becoming evident that nuclear energy is going to be the wave of the future. This paper takes the reader on an exploratory journey of the issues surrounding nuclear energy and the positive as well as negative aspects of the topic.
From the Paper
"The first alert came by way of Three Mile Island, in Pennsylvania (Siegel, 1991). The threat of a melt down that occurred there caused a nationwide panic and a first time anger at the fact that law makers had allowed nuclear energy to be used(Siegel, 1991). Just as those concerns finally were laid to rest the incident at Chernobyl occurred. If Three Mile Island was the cake, the accident at Chernobyl was the frosting and after it killed dozens of people, destroyed countless miles of land for the next few centuries and exposed millions to fallout symptoms for the next several generations America firmly put its foot down and began to demand the slow and stopping of all nuclear power activity in the states."
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Matter vs. Antimatter, 2002.
An explanation of the concepts within the context of physics.
3,287 words (approx. 13.1 pages), 10 sources, MLA, £ 55.95
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Abstract
This paper is all about ?matter? and ?antimatter.? Various aspects of the topic of antimatter are explored such as a detailed explanation of its concept, the history of its discovery and subsequent developments. The paper also includes a discussion of the relevant theories of physics that are related to the subject and help us to understand the concept of antimatter.
From the Paper
"Man has for ages called everything that exists on earth as ?matter.? As his knowledge increased over the years, scientists discovered that matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. These atoms, in turn were discovered to have a nucleus at the center, surrounded by a cloud of electrical charges called ?electrons.? Still later, it was discovered that the nuclei contain still smaller particles named protons and neutrons. Latest research shows that even the tiny protons and neutrons consist of even smaller ?fundamental particles? called quarks. Quarks are believed (so far!) to be indivisible. This knowledge about ?matter? is relatively common. What is less commonly known is the scientific discovery that all matter or particles have partners or ?mirror image? having most properties similar to their corresponding matter but with an opposite charge (and other electro-magnetic properties). For want of a better name, scientists called their new discovery ?antimatter.? "
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Comets, 2002.
This paper explains what a comet is and why they continue to circle around the planets.
1,200 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 24.95
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Abstract
This paper explains the composition of comets and clarifies what happens that gives them their shimmering appearance. It explains the various types of comets and elucidates the close link between the orbit of comets and the orbit of meteor showers. It lists the commonly seen features when a comet is near the sun and concludes by looking at factors resulting in a change in the behavior of a comet.
From the Paper
"In outer space there are many things that man is still trying to fathom, and he has been intrigued by many things high up in the sky, but yet has not been able to figure out what they are or what they may mean. The field of astrology is one that began thousands of years ago with the Egyptians being the first known astronomers. They were the ones who created the first map of the North Star that is used till today to trace the movements of our planet and the heavenly bodies around it."
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Schrodinger, 2002.
A biography of the life and works of the physicist Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger.
860 words (approx. 3.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 17.95
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Abstract
The paper details the life of the Austrian physicist Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger. It examines his academic career from its origins from the University of Vienna in 1906 to his faculty positions all over the World. It evaluates his work and his published writings on topics such as electromagnetic theory, color theory and wave mechanics and describes his two most famous equations, crucial to relating wave theory with the energy of a system.
From the Paper
"With the outbreak of the World War I, despite being stationed on the Italian Front, Schrodingerr published a paper. His first work was based on furthering Boltzmann?s ideas. Schrodingerreceived a citation for his efforts in the War. After the war, Schrodinger was sent to Vienna where he continued his research. He published his work on quantum mechanics and later made valuable contributions to the color theory. His work on radioactive decay garnered him an associate faculty?s position in Vienna. Financial constraints (having to care for a family?he had recently married) caused Schrodinger to take up a faculty position in Jena. Later he held chairman?s positions in Breslau, and finally the chair of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich."
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The Atoms in My Hand, 2002.
An insight into atoms - what they are and where they come from.
715 words (approx. 2.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 14.95
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Abstract
The paper gives a brief insight into atoms from the beginning of recognition of their existence by the ancient Greeks, to the ability today to create man-made ones. It discusses the chemical composition of atoms and how scientists can now predict their behavior with great accuracy.
From the Paper
"According to existing theories and experimental results, the Big Bang took place about 12,000-15,000 million years ago. Within the first three minutes of the existence of the Universe, the light elements originated. Atoms came along after about 300,000 years and the stars and galaxies originated during the first million years. However, it took a while for humans to recognize atoms, although they were right before their eyes."
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