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Women and Science, 2004.
A discussion about the acceptance of women in the field of science.
754 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 2 sources, MLA, £ 15.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the fact that issues of gender continue to strongly influence both scientific literature and the practice of science today. Based on notions of gender that developed during the enlightenment and the Victorian era, the paper explores science's long history of incorporating gender norms and sex dichotomies into science.
From the Paper
"Notions of gender have influenced the historic development of science in the west, as reason and science have long been seen as male traits. Similarly, gender ideals such as the characterization of females as maternal, associated with nature, irrational, and week have been reflected in scientific literature. Today, science continues to be influenced by ideas of gender, as literature reflects gender biases, and female scientists routinely must challenge gender biases."
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Entropy, 2004.
An analysis of entropy, the spontaneous dispersal of energy.
1,000 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 20.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the concept of entropy, describing how it governs every physical, chemical, and biological aspect of life. The paper explores two different perspectives to view entropy: that it is essentially dispersive in nature and that it is constructive in nature. The paper provides examples to illustrate entropy.
From the Paper
"Entropy effects are seen in almost every instance of life. At an atomic and molecular level, the energy of substances is associated with their motion. A more energetic compound has greater motion. This atomic and molecular motion can be translational, vibrational and/or rotational, in decreasing order of energy. Each of these motions is associated with energy levels that are discrete. Atoms and, in turn, molecules cannot have randomly assigned energies. This means that substances can possess only discrete quanta or packets of energy."
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Lactose, 2004.
This paper discusses lactose, one of the major components of milk.
805 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 5 sources, APA, £ 16.95
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Abstract
This paper relates that lactose, an important and well-understood component of milk, provides an important source of nutrition during development, and, for individuals without lactose intolerance, milk often continues to be an important part of a healthy and varied adult diet. The author points out that lactose intolerance is a common issue for much of the world's population, especially people of Asian and non-Western European decent, but a large number of Europeans can easily digest lactose. The paper relates that, in the Western society, lactose (within milk) is used within a wide variety of milk products, such as cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream, and yogurts; in addition, milk is used in a wide variety of other food products, including breads, pizzas, ice cream products, and even cereals.
From the Paper
"In structure, lactose is a white crystalline disaccharide that is comprised of two sugars that are bound together: glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose are monosaccharides. Lactose has the same chemical formula as sucrose and maltose (C12H22O11). However, lactose differs from sucrose and maltose in structure. When hydrolyzed, lactose yields D-glucose and D-galactose. This hydrolysis is catalyzed by lactase within the digestive tract (Miller). Thy hydrolysis of lactose results in increased sweetness and a depression of the freezing point of milk."
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A Brief History of Kevlar Development, 2004.
Describes Kevlar, a material best known for its use in bulletproof vests, and its many applications.
3,025 words (approx. 12.1 pages), 16 sources, APA, £ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper provides an overview and background of aramids, in general, and Kevlar, in particular, including its physical properties, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as anticipated future developments and trends in its production. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion.
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Advantages and Disadvantages
Future Developments and Trends
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Background and Overview. Kevlar is an industrial textile that is most commonly known in the manufacture of bulletproof vests; however, it is also used in the manufacture of composites, and fiber optic and electromechanical cables (Seewald, 1991). Industrial textiles refer to the manufacture of such fabrics as asbestos, glass fibers, carbon fibers and Kevlar, which are produced for the automotive, aerospace sectors of industry (Martin, Penn & Scattergood, 1991). Following the success of nylons in such applications, aromatic nylons known as aramids were created through the condensation of a diamine and terephthalic acid (this is a carboxylic acid that contains a hexagonal benzene ring in its molecules). The close packing of the aromatic polymer chains resulted in a strong, tough, stiff, high-melting fiber that was suitable for use in radial tires, heat- or flame-resistant fabrics, bulletproof clothing, and fiber-reinforced composite materials. DuPont first began to produce Nomex (its trademark for poly-meta-phenylene isophthalamide) in 1961 and Kevlar (the trademarked name of poly-para-phenylene terephthalamide) in 1971 (Stevens & Kauffman, 2004)."
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Linear sp Carbon Allotropes, 2004.
This paper discusses that, while modern day discoveries of new carbon allotropes are reported, the characterization of allotropy remains ambiguous as the definition of what constitutes an allotrope is under debate.
1,200 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 50 sources, MLA, £ 24.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the linear sp carbon of Lagow?s proposed length and structure is contradicted by the unlikelihood of such a stable, long chain allotrope, granting more validity to Hirsch?s argument against the existence of Lagow?s carbon allotrope. The author points out that controversy arises because, while they do not directly fit the definition of allotropes, non-molecular allotropes like diamond and graphite will terminate with other elements (so no longer a pure element) to become stable. The paper concludes that future scientific work in this area is required to determine a true carbon sp allotrope of usable stability, if one exists, but at this time, Hirsch?s position remains the more plausible basis of allotropic characterization.
From the Paper
"The IUPAC Red Book defines allotropes as ?different structural modifications of [an] element,? with allotropic transition considered the ?transition of a pure element, at a defined temperature and pressure, from one crystal structure to another which contains the same atoms but which has different properties?. This definition excludes ozone and oxygen, and does not discuss the classification of carbon allotropes, which can be examined on the basis of the hybridization of their valence orbitals. More modern definitions include the classification of tin where one allotrope is a covalently bonded solid and the other a metal, and differentiate between allotropic molecules, such as dioxygen, infinite covalent solids, like diamond, and infinite, covalently bonded layers with weak intermolecular forces, as seen with graphite. There are also materials that crystallize where the covalent bonding between the elements is unchanged, which are termed polymorphs rather than true allotropes."
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Crystalline Silica in the Workplace, 2004.
A study of the effects of exposure to crystalline silica in the workplace.
23,700 words (approx. 94.8 pages), 38 sources, MLA, £ 146.95
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Abstract
This study provides a discussion of silica, the evolution of crystalline silica dust exposure concerns, an overview of the various uses of crystalline silica in the workplace, a summary of the various governmental regulations and standards that currently govern crystalline silica in the workplace, and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) evaluation process for classification of silica, a discussion of how the presence of crystalline silica is currently determined and measured in the workplace, as well as what can be done to protect workers from exposure to this hazardous material. Additionally, the various health risks resulting from crystalline silica exposure are discussed, including the relationship between crystalline silica exposure and the incidence of silicosis, cancer, and various autoimmune disorders. Finally, the specific dangers of exposure in the construction industry and among heavy-equipment operators are explored, and the growing body of legal actions resulting from crystalline silica exposure is discussed.
Contents
Introduction
Problem Statement
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Scope of Study
Rationale of Study
Definition of Terms
Overview of Study
Review of Literature
History of Crystalline Silica Exposure
Use of Crystalline Silica
Measurement of Crystalline Silica
Determining the Presence of Silica in the Workplace
Measuring Workplace Exposure to Crystalline Silica
Protection Against Crystalline Silica
Silicosis Resulting from Crystalline Silica
The IARC Evaluation Process
IARC Classification of Silica
Amended IARC Evaluation of Silica as a Carcinogen
Crystalline Silica and Autoimmune Diseases
Exposure to Silica in Construction
Exposure to Silica Among Heavy Equipment
Exposure to Silica in Sandblasters
Legal Actions
Death in the Workplace
Regulation
OSHA's Hazard Standard
Relevant OSHA Regulations
Methodology
Approach
Data Gathering
Database of Study
Validity of the Data
Originality & Limitations of the Data
From the Paper
"Silicon is classified as a nonmetal, but it has many of the properties that are associated with metals. Some scientists refer to this type of an element as a metalloid. Silicon acts like a metal and conducts electricity at high temperatures, but at low temperatures, it behaves more like an insulator and does not conduct electricity. Therefore, it is referred to as a semiconductor. This particular property is what made silicon the perfect element to propel technology into the world of transistors, then integrated circuits, and finally today's computer chip (Boegel, 1968).
Silica is a chemical compound, as opposed to an element, and is formed from silicon and oxygen atoms. A chemical compound is defined as ?a distinct and pure substance formed by the union of two or more elements? (USGS, 1992, p. 3). Due to the abundance of the elements of oxygen and silicon, the natural formation of silica is quite common. Silica sand, the substance from which pure silicon is derived, is made of quartz. Quartz is the most common form of silica found in nature."
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Chemical Polarity, 2004.
An overview of the importance of polarity in bond formation.
1,956 words (approx. 7.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, £ 36.95
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Abstract
This paper examines polarity, the unequal distribution of charges, and how bond formation and, hence, compound formation largely depends on it. It looks at how all properties of chemical compounds largely stem from their relative polarities and how life would not exist without elemental polarities. It provides a basic explanation of the different types of bonding between elements, such as ionic and covalent, as well the importance of these bonds in the creation of biochemical structures, such as proteins and DNA.
From the Paper
"Therefore, any molecule or ion (simple of complex) that has an internal unequal distribution of charges is a polar molecule. This is the definition of polarity. Since bond breaking or bond formation and chemical reactions occur by means of electron transfer, the availability (or lack thereof) of electrons and the ease in which one bond can break and another form depends on the polarities of the compounds involved. Every chemical reaction and every pharmaceutical product created depends on polarities and electron density distributions. Here is an example of electron transfer: nucleophilic substitutions reactions."
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Witchcraft and Science, 2004.
Compares the Salem witch trials to the experience of those in modern society who are attempting to break into a career field dominated by one particular caste.
4,423 words (approx. 17.7 pages), 12 sources, APA, £ 68.95
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Abstract
This paper compares at the experience of women accused of witchcraft in Europe in the 17th century to the experience of women in contemporary society trying to break into the field of science. The paper contends that women of the 17th century, who practiced medicine through their knowledge of herbs and natural healing methods, were perceived as a threat to the male-dominated field of medicine and society at large. It is also argued in this paper that women in science today are faced with the same set of beliefs and barriers that held the women of the 17th century back from their equal status.
From the Paper
"Whenever one group of people obtain a majority interest in social order over another particular group, or over all other groups, the cries of outrage and abuse will soon be heard from both the dominant and the oppressed. The oppressed people of the group often have a legitimate point of contention. Possibly they were not the fastest to secure economic prominence, and therefore as the poor, they now need assistance to keep up with the leaders. Perhaps they simple lost a number of competitions, and became the follower rather than the leaders. In any case, those who are now in the position of following eventually begin to question the established social order. In order to bring about change, they often cry ?discrimination? or ?prejudice? of some other emotionally charged epithet in order to gain the public?s support for their self induced plight."
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Chromatography, 2004.
An overview of chromatography and outline of its history.
803 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 16.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at chromatography, an analytical technique based on the principle of selective adsorption that is used for the chemical separation of mixtures and substances. It examines how it is an important field of chemistry, which deals with the separation of pure substances from complex mixtures, and is widely used in the analysis of foods, drugs, blood, petroleum products, and radioactive-fission products. It also examines how variants of ?column? chromatography have been developed since its discovery in 1906, including partition, liquid, paper, thin-layer, and gas-liquid chromatography.
From the Paper
"Chromatography was discovered in 1906 by the Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett who first coined the term (derived from the Latin for ?color writing?). The technique used by Tswett for separating the pigments (chlorophyll) of plants consisted of pouring petroleum-ether extract of green leaves over a column of powdered calcium carbonate in a vertical glass tube. As the solution seeped through the column the individual components of the mixture moved downward at different rates of speed, and the column became marked with horizontal bands of colors. Tswett did not enjoy a happy relationship with fellow scientists of his time, as they derided his results, and his technique, with Tswett responding in kind. As a result, it wasn?t until the 1930s that his methods were accepted as a breakthrough in chromatography."
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Sweetening Natural Gas, 2004.
Describes the most chemical process most commonly used for sweetening natural gas.
7,305 words (approx. 29.2 pages), 19 sources, MLA, £ 95.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by illustrating the process most commonly used to remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas. The paper then goes on to describe an alternative method used for the removal of hydrogen sulfide and describes the benefits of this method, as well as some of the problems associated with it. Additionally, the paper points out that the water content of natural gas is an important engineering consideration concerning the sweetening process and presents an overview of the properties of pure acid gases and water and hydrogen sulfide. The paper then goes on to outline and explain additional processes and engineering considerations concerning the removal of hydrogen sulfide and includes some cost estimates and comparisons of the processes.
Properties of H2S and CO2
Vapor / Liquid Properties of Pure Compounds
Vapor / Liquid Phase Behavior
Acid Gas Compression and Dehydration
Metallurgy
Acid Gas Dehydration
Acid Gas Injection Facilities
Cost Comparisons with Small Scale Sulfur Recovery Options
Operating Costs
From the Paper
"Sour natural gas contains hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which has to be removed to meet specifications for sales gas. Sour natural gas also contains carbon dioxide (CO2). The removal of CO2 and H2S, usually called acid gases, from sour natural gas is generally accomplished by means of a regenerative solvent. There are several amine solvents used for this purpose. Upon regeneration of the solvent, the acid gases are liberated, and are usually sent to a modified Claus plant, where the H2S is converted to elemental sulfur (Canjar & Manning 1967). The acid gas stream to the modified Claus plant consists of H2S, CO2, water vapor and minor amounts of hydrocarbon gas."
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Wine Making, 2004.
An overview of the process of wine fermentation.
879 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 18.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at how wine making is an ancient but evolving art and science and how only recently have vintners and scientists alike been able to understand and, therefore, control the actions of yeast on the fermentation process. It discusses the whole fermentation process from the different stages of fermentation to the different strains of yeasts and catalysts used.
From the Paper
"Fundamentally, fermentation occurs when sugars are transformed into alcohol, carbon dioxide, and some chemical by-products. In the case of wine, the carbon dioxide is released. The entire process involves no fewer than thirty chemical reactions (Peynaud 94). Yeast catalyzes fermentation. During the initial stage of wine fermentation, which lasts up to one week, the winemaker will leave the vessel open to the air. Thus, primary fermentation is aerobic, which allows the yeast to multiply in number instead of getting to work on the conversion of sugars into alcohol. Especially within the first few days of fermentation, yeasts concentrate almost all their energy on reproduction. Biologically, winemaking yeasts reproduce by budding or by the formation of spores. Saccharomyces yeasts reproduce by budding."
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Preservation of Library Materials, 2002.
A look into the technology behind the preservation of paper library materials.
2,314 words (approx. 9.3 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 41.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the importance and value of the preservation of library materials. It then discusses how this is done, including the technological process. The writer further examines how this process has evolved and advanced over time.
From the Paper
"Since the beginnings of the library system in the United States, many methods have been devised for the preservation of library materials, such as books, manuscripts, autographs and related ephemera, prints, maps, paintings, photographs, movie film, sound recordings and videotape/DVD's. Some of these specialized techniques have been highly successful, while others have often failed to preserve certain items in their original, pristine conditions. As Caroline Horton points out, items of special value held in library collections "require the skills of trained conservators, for the vast majority of materials deteriorate rapidly" (167), not to mention the skills and talents required to preserve common items that are usually part of the circulating system of any public or academic library."
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Androstenedione, 2002.
An examination of the chemical makeup of the drug androstenedione and a discussion of the pros and cons of its use.
1,537 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 10 sources, MLA, £ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the muscle building synthetic hormone called androstenedione or androstenediol, also nicknamed ?andro? which became the first in a list of performance-enhancing substances called pro-hormones. It is called a pro-hormone because it is a precursor to testosterone and metabolizes directly into testosterone and is commonly used by athletes. It analyzes the so called beneficial effects which make ?andro? attractive to males of different persuasions with (mostly) cosmetic, non life threatening problems and how research has shown that the negative effects far outweigh the potential benefits. It looks at how aggressive behavior, mood swings and bad moods are commonly reported side effects of androstenedione as well as hair loss, blurred vision, acne, enlarged breasts, shrunken testicles and rarely, liver cancer.
From the Paper
"Androstenedione is also naturally produced by the adrenal gland in humans. Androstenedione was first synthesized in 1935. (Ruzicka and Wettstein, 1935) In 1936, world expert on steroid hormones, Dr. Charles Kochakian, was the first to show that androstenedione produced both androgenic and anabolic effects. But the anabolic effects were significant only in castrated dogs, and even then were much weaker than effects of testosterone. (Kochakian and Murlin, 1936) Its variants are commonly found in the pollen of Scotch pine trees. Androstenedione, when taken orally, will increase blood levels of both Androstenedione and testosterone. According to the German patent given for Androstenedione, 50mg given orally to men raised plasma testosterone levels up to 20 per cent; 100mg raised levels higher than 35 per cent. Blood levels start rising about 15 minutes after oral administration and stay elevated for around three hours."
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Air Pollution, 2002.
An examination of the effect of different gases on the quality of air and on the population's health.
11,025 words (approx. 44.1 pages), 2 sources, MLA, £ 127.95
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Abstract
This paper provides a detailed analysis of several gases and chemicals which are present in the air we breathe and how these are causing adverse effects on our health. It explains that air pollution created by humans is the most dangerous and discusses possible ways to reduce this phenomena.
Outdoor Air Pollution
Ozone
Nitrogen Dioxide
Sulphur Dioxide
Acid Aerosols
Particulates
Air Toxics
Carbon Monoxide
Lead
Asbestos
Asbestos: Health and Exposure
Potential Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution on Health
War: Detrimental Consequences and Air Pollution
War Gases
Classification of War Gases
Asphyxiants (Irrespirable Gases)
Sewer Gas
Emphysema
From the Paper
"The air that surrounds us is a mixture of 78 percent nitrogen; 21 percent oxygen; less than 1 percent of carbon dioxide, argon, and other gases; and varying amounts of water vapor. Any other particles, gases or unoriginal constituents hanging in the air which are not part of its original composition are called ?Pollutants? and this kind of air is called
Polluted Air. Even inhaling small amounts of such air pollutants can have serious effects on one?s health and leads to environmental problems. We can see some air pollutants such as the reddish-brown haze in smog; however, other air pollutants, including some of the most dangerous, are invisible.
Air pollution can be natural or human-made. Air pollution occurs naturally during volcano eruptions, forest fires, or dust storms. This has been an occasional problem for humans. However, during the past hundred years, air pollution created by humans has become a major, persistent problem."
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