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The Role of Genetics in Ataxia, 2006.
A look at the neurological disorder Ataxia, its characteristics, genetic make-up and diagnosis.
2,600 words (approx. 10.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 47.95
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Abstract
This paper provides a general overview of Ataxia, a neurological condition, wherein spinal and cerebellum nerve cells slowly but progressively deteriorate. It describes the characteristics of the disorder, treatments used to help alleviate its symptoms, the prognosis for those who suffer from Ataxia and the genetics of the disorder. It also discusses the diagnosis of the disease, its progress, the different types of Ataxia, and the parts of the body most affected by it.
From the Paper
"Ataxia is a neurological disorder that is characterized by unsteady walking, loss of muscle coordination and slurred speech. It is no longer a rare condition in that more is known about it. It is dominant hereditary, recessive or sporadic. It is dominant hereditary if both parents pass the gene on to their offspring and DNA tests detect this condition. It is recessive when only one parent transmits the gene. And it is sporadic if there is no evidence to show this. Friedrich ataxia is the most common recessive type of ataxia, with first symptoms developing in childhood. The ataxia gene may also be mutated and develop into ATM. No cures are known for ataxia and the prospects are dim."
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Designer Babies, 2005.
This paper discusses the possibility and limitations of controlling the genetic composition of unborn babies.
1,170 words (approx. 4.7 pages), 2 sources, APA, £ 24.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that today, science is close to having the ability to selectively choose which babies will be born based on their genetic characteristics; therefore, now is the time to decide the ethicacy of this action. The author points out that the first applications of genetic manipulation will likely be medical; embryos will be manipulated to treat some genetic illness, such as Huntington's Chorea, or will be chosen selectively based on the absence of the Huntington's gene. The paper relates that, already in 2002, a hospital in Scotland was issued a license by the British government not to create "designer babies" but only to allow parents, by the use of abortion of defective fetuses, to avoid babies who are doomed to have some serious genetic disorder.
From the Paper
"The problem is that genetics is rarely that simple. Most of the time, genes only show a tendency, and experts cannot say whether the developing child will develop a specific illness or not. Even in identical twins, sometimes one develops a disease influenced by genetics, such as schizophrenia, while the other does not. Nevertheless, genetic researchers believe that eventually we will be able to screen embryos for combinations of genes that predispose people not only to life-threatening illnesses but for personality traits as well. However, people's personalities aren't as simple as a cluster of traits."
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The Evolution of the Giraffe, 2005.
Traces the evolution of the mammal known as the giraffe, examining different views on the topic.
874 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 19.95
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Abstract
Since the giraffe was first used by Lamarck to rationalize his theory of evolution, the organism has been a textbook example of the most simple and obvious applications of evolutionary theory. This paper examines theories relating to the evolution of the giraffe. It examines the processes of natural and sexual selection to see how they apply to the theory of the giraffe's evolution.
From the Paper
"The elemental difference between natural selection and sexual selection is that the latter form takes place within a population. Sexual selection can often result in characteristics that hinder an organism's chances of survival, but simultaneously increase their chances of finding a mate. Since evolution is driven by the amount of offspring produced, both forms of selection are extremely important to the process of evolution."
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Louis Pasteur, 2005.
This paper discusses the work of French scientist Louis Pasteur, who revolutionized the studies of chemistry and biology.
805 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 5 sources, APA, £ 17.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the implications and applications of Pasteur's work extend into differing areas including human health and medicine and the food industries. The author points out that Pasteur alone was responsible for boosting and saving many of France's most important and lucrative industrial sectors such as wine, silk and farm animals. The paper relates that Pasteur's findings on germs and vaccinations are still applied to human medical practices today; he was the first to demonstrate that injecting small amounts of a weakened strain of bacteria would render an organism immune from this bacteria's detrimental effects.
From the Paper
"Pasteur's first major discoveries related directly to France's wine industry. Though yeast was already known to be the precursor for fermentation processes, Pasteur developed a deeper understanding of the process of fermentation. For example, he noted that while yeast causes the primary fermentation of a substance into alcohol, unwanted germs and bacteria can cause the product to sour. Applying his research to both the wine and beer industries in France, Pasteur discovered that heating the products kills the germs and therefore prevents the formation of souring agents like lactic acid. His process, called pasteurization after the esteemed scientist, was quickly applied to milk. Pasteurization works especially on substances like wine, beer, and milk, which contain large quantities of sugars: When microorganisms invade those substances, they interact with the sugars to cause souring."
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Punctuated Equilibrium, 2004.
An analysis of the theorized form of evolution called punctuated equilibrium.
1,020 words (approx. 4.1 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 22.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the form of evolution known as punctuated equilibrium. The paper contends that punctuated equilibrium appears to be increasingly proving itself as the most appropriate model for explaining evolution. The paper defines punctuated equilibrium as a theory that still holds to the idea of generational change, but suggests that it happens relatively quickly (geologically speaking). The paper explains that even if one is a creationist and does not believe in macro-level evolution, one must admit that micro-evolution has been proved to exist in a way that can only be explained as punctuated equilibrium.
From the Paper
"Evolutionists for generations after Darwin imagined a slow and steady process of adaptation, in which daily culling and breeding success very gradually adapted a population from one form into another. Such a process would not be dissimilar to unnatural selection, such as that done with domesticated animals, that gradually worked to change a wolf into a little Cairn Terrier or Shih Tzu. However, some have suggested that there might be a more sudden sort of change involved, in which evolution moves suddenly and with great speed. This theorized form of evolution, called punctuated equilibrium, has been widely debated, but seems to be increasingly accepted by scientists. There appears to be evidence for punctuated equilibrium from laboratory experiments, from field and fossil evidence, from theory and even from Darwin's original work."
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Anthrax, 2004.
A brief overview of the highly lethal bacterium, anthrax.
774 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 4 sources, MLA, £ 16.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses anthrax, an acute infectious disease that came into the limelight recently due to the anthrax attacks in the United States in the weeks following the September 2001 terror attacks, causing widespread panic. The paper includes information on how the disease is caused, types of anthrax, symptoms of the disease and its treatment. The paper also presents information on the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States and examines what makes anthrax a good bioterrorism agent.
Outline
Introduction
How is Anthrax Caused?
Bacillus Anthracis
Types of Anthrax and Ways in Which it can Infect Humans
Treatment
Anthrax as a Biological Weapon
The 2001 Anthrax Attacks
From the Paper
"Anthrax is caused by the bacterium 'Bacillus anthracis' that is highly lethal in its virulent form. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic animals, but it can also occur in humans when they are exposed to infected animals, tissue from infected animals, or high concentrations of anthrax spores. Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium which causes anthrax, is rod-shaped and about 1 by 6 micrometres in size. It was the first bacterium ever to be shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1877. The bacteria normally rest in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. When ingested by a plant eating animal, the bacteria starts to multiply and eventually kills the animal. They even continue to reproduce in the carcass but eventually revert back to the dormant spore state when they run out of nutrients. ("Bacillus anthracis.")"
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The Right to Die, 2005.
A thorough examination of euthanasia, including the author's own opinion on the topic.
4,283 words (approx. 17.1 pages), 27 sources, MLA, £ 69.95
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Abstract
Euthanasia can be attained either though an intentional process, or by refraining to take an action intentionally. In any one of the cases, the decision of a doctor makes the death of a patient a reality. This is substantiated on the grounds that the individual's life was 'not worthy of living' maybe in their independent, or in somebody else's consideration. This paper first presents an historical overview of the topic of euthanasia. It then discusses the arguments in favor and opposition to euthanasia. Finally, the paper presents the author's pro-euthanasia views.
Paper Outline:
Introduction
Historical Overview
Case For
Case Against
My Viewpoint
Conclusion
Works Cited
From the Paper
"It has also been advocated that if taking life is established as medical procedure there is no guarantee for its proper regulation. The controlling methods to secure against exploitation will necessitate an open system, but privacy requirements make such a system unbelievable. The legalized physician-patient association necessitates sealing of all records of treatment and patient condition. Moreover, a climate in which managed care system are motivated by economic considerations enhances the real risk that legal killing will spread out and the profit motive will be infused into the euthanasia consideration."
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The Human Genome Project, 2005.
This paper discusses the Human Genome Project (HGP), designed to provide detailed and complete information about the genes in human DNA.
1,175 words (approx. 4.7 pages), 4 sources, APA, £ 24.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that, when completed, the Human Genome Project (HGP) will map the 50,000-100,000 genes contained in the human DNA resulting in the single most dramatic sphere of biological research, which holds the power to change theories and assumptions in the areas of biology, psychology and medicine. The author points out that the early stages of this project already have provided important new information about human genes, resulting in ethical questions requiring carefully judgment about such issues as congenital diseases and privacy. The paper stresses that in cases of clear-cut genetic causation, such as Huntington's chorea and some types of breast cancer, medical professionals and their patients have to make some difficult decisions.
From the Paper
"Other questions involve the right of individuals to privacy. Once we have human DNA completely mapped, will we then begin to generate detailed genetic profiles of all medical patients? If we do, is this information that can be shared with other organizations, by, for instance, hospitals? If it can be shared, insurance companies might then drop people with genes that make them prone to certain kinds of cancer, or destined to develop some genetically-driven disease such as Huntington's. In those cases, the individuals would get glimpses into their medical future whether they wanted to know what their genes reveal or not."
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"The Cod?s Tale", 2005.
A review of Mike Kurlansky's book about cod fish and how they have impacted human history for a millennia.
1,149 words (approx. 4.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 23.95
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Abstract
This paper introduces, summarizes and reviews Mike Kurlansky's book "The Cod's Tale". The paper explains that Kurlansky's book is not only a history lesson from a new perspective, but a cautionary tale for the future as well.
From the Paper
"Determining appropriate environmental policies is very often a hazardous endeavor. Largely, this is because potential costs and benefits associated with environmental problems can only be speculated upon, rather than empirically determined. It is not clear, for instance, how much reducing a factory's greenhouse emissions will quantitatively help society; nevertheless, making good decisions regarding these issues demands that we weigh calculable figures with estimates, and sometimes, estimates with estimates. This makes the already fierce setting of environmental debates an even more perilous battleground. Imperfect information influences individuals, environmentalists, government officials, and businesses in ways that generally require them to reach their own conclusions, and apply their unique perspectives. This unique attribute of environmental science makes it a wide-ranging field that often requires the groups involved to make informed decisions, derived from such varying disciplines as physics and physiology. Mike Kurlansky's The Cod's Tale helps to demonstrate the enormous tasks environmental scientists are faced with, as well as the substantial social implications associated with their conclusions. "
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Animal Senses, 2005.
An overview of three experiments to determine the depth of perception in animals.
2,131 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 40.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how Herman, Pack and Hoffman-Kuhnt performed relatively rigorous experiments to determine the source of dolphin recognition of objects and how they wanted to discover, among other things, whether dolphins attained the shape discrimination (of objects) through associative learning or direct perception. It also looks at how Fukuzawa, Mills and Cooper sought to determine the mechanism by which domestic dogs responded to commands. Finally it examines how Greenberg wanted to discover the facts about depth perception in two species of Asian rodents, the Mongolian gerbil and two varieties of spiny mice.
Outline
Dolphins
Dogs
Gerbils and Mice
Commentary
From the Paper
"This experiment sought, above all else, to avoid a Pavlovian response in the dogs. In short, when setting up the experiment, Fukuzawa et al. went to enormous trouble to ensure that their subjects were not influenced in any way by reward, not even so small a reward as the warmth of a human voice. They first trained the dogs in the experiment to two commands-come and sit-and thereafter used a sort of disembodied voice to issue those commands in their experiments. The handler wore dark glasses so the dogs could not make eye contact and perform on that basis, and the commands themselves were issued by a voice recorder situated near the handler."
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Animal Experimentation, 2005.
A discussion of the alternatives to animal experimentation and why they should be considered.
1,124 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 5 sources, MLA, £ 23.95
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Abstract
This paper presents the argument that alternative research methods exist and have been proven to be more accurate, less expensive and less time-consuming than cruel animal experimentation. It explains however, that those who benefit financially from experimenting on animals or supplying vivisectors with cages, restraining devices, food for caged animals and tiny guillotines to destroy animals insist that most medical advances has been made through the use of animal testing. It concludes that while most drugs and procedures must now be tested on animals before hitting the market, this does not mean that animal experiments are invaluable or irreplaceable. Alternative methods are a viable option.
From the Paper
"Vivisection, the practice of experimenting on animals, started as a result of religious prohibitions against the dissection of human corpses (WAVA, 2005). By the time these prohibitions were taken away, the practice of animal vivisection for medical, cosmetic and military purposes, had become common practice in various institutions around the world. Animals are subjected to tremendous suffering for the sake of science and technological advancement (WAVA, 2005). Estimates of animals tortured and killed in U.S. scientific laboratories range from 17 to 70 million per year."
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Nature vs. Nurture, 2004.
An analysis of the nature versus nurture debate with reference to the theories of Freud, Erikson and Darwin.
1,328 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 3 sources, MLA, £ 26.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the nature versus nurture debate. The paper illustrates the differences in interpretations of this debate, by discussing theories developed by Freud, Erikson and Darwin. The paper contends that although much progress has been made through scientific research on such things as genetics (especially with regard to identical twin studies), there is still much that is unknown. The paper assesses that the truth lies somewhere in the middle of the nature/nurture continuum. The paper agrees that there is evidence in support of both sides of the issue.
Outline
A Brief Introduction
Human Nature and Personality
Intellectual Development
Social Development
Conclusion
From the Paper
"For hundreds, perhaps thousands of years, people have wondered just what role "nature," or one's inherent traits from birth, and "nurture," or the role one's environment (physical, cultural, social, and familial) plays in one's physical and psychological identity. In modern times, especially since the discovery of genetics and DNA, this has become even more of a question for debate and study. Although there have been many differing interpretations of the nature vs. nurture question, the two extremes that are commonly cited are represented by the Darwinian Theory (nature), and the Freudian Theory (nurture). Although the complete truth regarding the issue is far but definitively decided, many today in science, psychology, anthropology and medicine believe the issue is far more complex than any one theory. However, as science progresses, it has become clear that the "nature" aspect of human development is far stronger than previously suspected."
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Reptile Systems, 2005.
This paper discusses the nervous and digestive systems of reptiles.
905 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 4 sources, APA, £ 19.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the nervous and digestive systems of reptiles, emphasizing their main characteristics and briefly compare them to the nervous and digestive systems at other vertebrates including humans. The author points out that the anatomical characteristics of the reptile's nervous system, such as the position of the brain or the spinal cord, resemble closely those of the human and higher vertebrates; the reptilian nervous system has developed to provide the best adaptation of the reptiles' necessities, with emphasis on sight, smell and motor functions. The paper relates that birds and reptiles are the only vertebrates to have the cloacae chamber, the removal system of the body, is where the faeces is discharged; the urodaeum receives the urogenital tract ducts and the proctodaeum acts as a common collecting area prior to evacuation.
From the Paper
"As such, the reptilian nervous system is formed of two different components: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system is composed of all nervous tissues and structures that do not actually belong to the CNS. As at other vertebrates, the brain, constituent part of the central nervous system, is protected by the skull. The bones forming the skull similarly have names such as parietal and occipital, which also form the human skull, for example."
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Homeostasis, 2005.
This paper discusses the function of homeostasis in human biology.
2,685 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 14 sources, MLA, £ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper defines homeostatis as the preservation of stability or constant condition in a biological system by means of automatic mechanisms that work against influences leaning towards disequilibrium. The author points out that, in human beings, many organs check homeostasis in the blood that gives fluid for all tissues; the kidney controls urea, pH and water concentration, the lungs control oxygen and carbon dioxide and the liver and the skin control temperature. The paper relates that homeostasis aids in discharge by eliminating injurious wastes from the organism: Lungs eliminate CO2 and water; blood vessels in the skin expand to let more heat to escape, sweat glands form sweat that pulls out heat from the body to evaporate it.
From the Paper
"For the existence of a cell, homeostasis is necessary and each cell provides as part of body system to homeostasis. Homeostasis relies on the body's incessantly working of many actions. Its main activities or functions are reacting to variation in the body's environment, exchanging materials between the environment and cells, metabolizing foods, and incorporating all of the body's miscellaneous activities. Over the years, the capacity of the body to do many of its functions changes slowly. Generally, the body performs its duties perfectly at both ends of life - in infancy and old age. At childhood, body works effectively and efficiently. At late maturity and old age the reverse is true. Slowly they become less and less able and operational."
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