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Rise Of Muslim Science And Astronomy, 2002.
Traces the rise of Muslim scholarship from the 8th and 9th Centuries.
4,500 words (approx. 18.0 pages), 11 sources, £ 96.95
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Abstract
Traces the rise of Muslim scholarship from the 8th & 9th Centuries. Syntheses of existing astronomical traditions--Persian, Indian & Greek texts. Arab knowlededge of celestial world. Importance of Ptolemaic model for the planets. Establlishment of House of Wisdom in Baghdad. Islamic impact on development of astronomy & mathematics. Contribution of astrologers.
From the Paper
"The rise of Muslim science began after the life of the
prophet Mohammed and the beginning of Islam in the seventh century. The eighth and ninth centuries involved the period of consolidation of the Muslim people, and the real rise of Muslim scholarship occurred in the ninth and tenth centuries (Al-Daffa', 1977). The Muslims integrated the astronomical traditions of the Indians, Persians, the ancient near east, and especially the Greeks into a synthesis which began to chart a new chapter in the history of astronomy from the eighth century onward (IAL). The unification of the tribes of Arabia into a powerful nation, including Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the whole North Africa, Gibraltar, and Spain created a vast intellectual empire (Ead). However, the Greek legacy did not immediately dominate without a struggle with native ..."
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Creationism in Public Schools, 2001.
Discussing the controversial question about what theory of creation should be taught in public schools.
2,607 words (approx. 10.4 pages), 7 sources, MLA, £ 55.95
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Abstract
This research paper explores the widely disputed concept of which forms of evolution, if any, should be taught in public schools. Did God create the universe, or did it stem from the Big Bang. What educators and school boards think. Current schools? policies are examined, and many experts? opinions are analyzed.
From the Paper
"Since Charles Darwin published his Origin of Species, a constant battle between creation and evolution has arisen. Darwin offered a new explanation of where man came from. He believed that humans, and all other living things for that matter, evolved from less complex forms of life, allowing only the fittest species to survive and adapt. Furthermore, evolutionists, the supporters of Darwin?s theory, believe the universe was created in a massive explosion billions of years ago called the big bang. Creationists, on the other hand, believe that some higher power, usually God, created the universe as described in the Genesis chapter of the Bible. The debate over how the universe was created eventually spilled over into America?s public education system, leading to a major controversy. Because of laws mandating a separation of religious beliefs and public institutions, like public schools, a decision on which theory of the universe?s creation should be taught could not be reached. This poses a new question. To what degree, if any, should creationism and evolution be taught in the public schools? Based on current scientific evidence, waning public opinion, and the violation of the separation of church and state, it is negligent for creationism to have a place in America?s classrooms."
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Cosmology and The Big Bang Theory, 1995.
Looks at the evolution of theories concerning the origins and nature of the universe.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 7 sources, £ 28.95
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From the Paper
"Cosmology and the Big Bang Theory
Overview
Since the beginning of human history, there have been questions about where the "stuff" that composes our universe comes from. In cosmology, the study of the origin and evolution of the universe, theories are put forward to explain the known facts and assumptions about the stars and everything we know and sense.
There are "steady state" theories that propose that everything in the universe is pretty much the way it always has been. The steady state theory posits that the universe is contained within a "closed" system, and so the assumption could be made that the universe extends for a vast though finite distance in all directions. However, in 1823 a German cosmologist named Wilhelm Olbers asked the question, "Why is the sky dark at night?" Olbers ..."
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Plate Tectonics on Venus, 1993.
A look at the discoveries relating to Venus' geology with the Earth's crust including plates, rifts, etc.
2,475 words (approx. 9.9 pages), 14 sources, £ 62.95
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From the Paper
"Plate Tectonics on Venus?
The plate tectonic theory is now widely accepted as a unifying basis for the physical geology of the earth as a whole. Not only does it explain most of the tectonic phenomena on Earth, but a number of key points have been well substantiated by paleomagnetic and seismologic studies (4). Venus, Earth's nearest neighbor, and similar in size, density, and age (8) might be expected to have similar tectonic activity. Indeed Soviet and U.S. explorations of Venus during the 60's and 70's revealed several features that could be interpreted as past or ongoing tectonism (Fig. 1). These included large calderas and arachnoids suggesting volcanism, dome uplifts, low ridge belts on planes, high mountain belts, heavily deformed areas called tesserae, and the circular coronae unique to Venus (9). Now that the..."
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Exploration of Mars, 1993.
A look at the Bush administration's plans including schedule, costs, technology, goals and problems.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 7 sources, £ 33.95
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From the Paper
"This study will examine the planned exploration of the planet Mars by the United States, including consideration of President George Bush's call for such exploration, timetables involved, methods to be used, the goals of such exploration, and what potential problems might be encountered.
Bush, as Aviation Week & Space Technology reports, "ordered that at least two substantially different proposals be drawn for new man missions to the Moon and Mars . . . Bush's action reflects a widely held view among top Administration officials that space exploration should substantially improve the nation's technological capabilities and economic leadership" (Aviation, "Bush Calls," 1990, p. 18).
We see, then, that Bush was trying to spur both the exploration of space by the National Aeronautics and Space..."
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Chemical Weathering on Mars, 1993.
Analyzes the planet's geologic processes compared to Earth.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 13 sources, £ 33.95
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From the Paper
"Chemical Weathering on Mars
Recent high pressure experiments have provided insight on the chemical composition of Mars' mantle (11:2239). Such studies indicate that 15.7 percent of the planet is composed of metal..a large proportion of which is iron (11:2239). It is estimated that partial melting of this mantle produces an iron.rich basaltic magma which generally reaches the planet's surface via massive shield volcanos and fissure eruptions (5:90). The extrusion of this turbulent, low viscosity lava has resulted in thinly disseminated iron sulfide mineralization over large areas of Mars (5:90). In addition to these iron.rich flows, the red planet's surface is also characterized by large accumulations of basaltic ash (7:2237). These deposits..some of which are meters thick..have undergone variable degrees of weathering (10:24). It ..."
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Volcanic Activity on Venus, 1992.
Examines evidence gathered from the spacecraft Pioneer Venus.
1,800 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 8 sources, £ 45.95
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From the Paper
"This study will discuss the evidence that there is volcanic activity on the planet Venus.
In fact, there is evidence both that there has been in the past considerable volcanic activity, and that there continues to be such activity. Pioneer Venus, the spacecraft which has been orbiting that planet since 1978, has been able to create a map of the geologic features of Venus with the use of radio waves and microwaves , and that map has clearly revealed "volcano-like structures" (Prinn, 1985, p. 46).
In addition, there is evidence that not only has there been volcanic action in the past, but that there is ongoing volcanic activity on the planet. That evidence comes in the form of a "thick, permanent layer of clouds" hanging over the planet, a cloud layer which prevented the direct camera sighting of the ..."
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"Space" by James Michener, 1991.
A critical analysis of the work on the origins and development of the U.S. space program and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 1 source, £ 28.95
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From the Paper
"Space by James Michener deals with the United States' space program, from its earliest explorations with rockets after World War II to the Viking probes of the other planets in our solar system. As with all of Michener's books, Space is well-researched, and the reader can be educated about the many facts of astronauts and space shuttles while being entertained by the fictional characters that the author has created.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has its birth as the second World War is concluding: Michener traces the steps of German scientist Wernher Von Braun (one of the "real" people in this book) and young rocket maker Dieter Kolff as they flee from Hitler's Nazi regime. Hitler had hoped that experts like Von Braun would provide instruments to help him win the war, but there was a defection, and Stanley Mott, an American..."
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Black Holes in Universe, 1990.
This paper contends that existence of black holes in the Universe is still theoretical because there are no measurable or observable phenomena.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 4 sources, £ 39.95
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From the Paper
"Black holes, sometimes called "collapsars," are a class of astronomical object which has attracted great attention both from astrophysicists and the general public in the past two decades. According to theory, if an astronomical body is large or dense enough, its gravitational escape velocity will exceed the velocity of light: thus no radiation from it can escape to the outside Universe. It disappears within an "event horizon." Such an object, from which not even light can escape, would seem to be undetectable, yet black holes are of great interest to astronomers and physicists. A number of indirect methods of detecting black holes have been proposed, and indeed a number of black hole "candidates" have been identified. However, black holes remain a theoretical construct, since no persuasive indirect observational evidence has been found that would rule ... "
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The Sun, 1990.
Origin, nature and physical features.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 5 sources, £ 33.95
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From the Paper
"Except for the Earth itself, the Sun is the one body in the Universe in whose fate human beings are most immediately concerned. Its light and heat make life on Earth possible, and the steadiness of that light and heat over four billion years of Earth's history made it possible for that life to evolve and survive. This paper will be devoted to a brief examination of the Sun's nature, origin, major characteristics, and probable fate.
The sun is a star. It is often called an "average" star, though stars vary so much in size, energy output, and other characteristics that to call any star average is in a sense misleading. But the Sun is indeed roughly intermediate among the various classes of stars. The most luminous known stars are roughly a million times brighter than the Sun, while the least.."
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The Sun, 1988.
Discusses the origin, function, dynamics, sun spots, solar cycle, in context of universal creation and composition.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 5 sources, £ 39.95
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From the Paper
" The purpose of this paper is to describe the origin, function, and dynamics of the sun, including sunspots and the solar cycle.
In order to describe the birth of the sun it is necessary to also discuss the origin of the universe and the formation of the solar system. For even though these happenings occurred billions of years apart, each one led to the formation of the other and they are all related. What makes this even more complicated is that throughout the history of man, there have been many theories concerning these astronomical occurrences, and there are still differing opinions among scientists. The most widely accepted and well-known opinions will be presented here."
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Halley's Comet, 1987.
Discusses discovery, composition, nucleus, 1986 passage, probes from Earth, tail, solar wind and general comet data.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 6 sources, £ 22.95
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From the Paper
"This paper will discuss Halley's comet using several current sources which deal with topics such as how a comet works, what causes the comet to be what it is, what new discoveries have been made and what research has been done or is being done on Halley's Comet.
Very recently has come the first unambiguous evidence of organic molecules in the nucleus of Halley's comet. The evidence from recent examination of the infrared spectrum of the comet shows emission by the carbon-hydrogen bonds of a solid in the dust grains surrounding the nucleus of the comet. The temperature of the dust is about 400 K.(a determination made by Giotto, the European comet probe), and yet the wavelength emissions match those observed from bacteria in the library. A dust analyzer on the Giotto shows that the dust is composed of (...)"
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Galileo, 1985.
This paper discusses the factors involved in the acceptability of Galileo's theories in science & theology.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 6 sources, £ 33.95
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From the Paper
"Galileo is perhaps the first scientist, at least since the Greek Archimedes, to be well known to the general public.
He is famous partly for his real achievements in physics and astronomy, partly for legendary achievements (such as dropping cannon-balls off the Leaning Tower of Pisa), and partly for having been tried for heresy by the Inquisition and compelled to recant his belief, now universally accepted, that the Earth moves in space.
Only in the last few years has the Catholic Church officially "reversed" his conviction. Yet his ideas, in spite of the violent controversy they stirred and the official condemna-tion they brought him, came to be generally accepted by educated opinion within a few years after his trial. Why were these ideas, though pronounced heretical, so widely and quickly accept ... "
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Radio Galaxies, 1972.
This paper explanations and hypotheses for these radio galaxies.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 6 sources, £ 28.95
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From the Paper
"Cygnus A is the best known of the group of dumbbell galaxies. It consists of two nuclei in a common halo. It could be an extreme case of double galaxies. Galaxies are often radio sources.. Cygnus A is so-called because of the constellation in which it is located.. The galaxies at the center of radio star Cygnus A are photographed with the 200-inch telescope. These galaxies are practically at the limit of present optical observation. However, they are one of the strongest radio sources in the sky. Minkowski interprets Cygnus A as two galaxies, of about 100 billion stars each, in head-on collision - a catastrophe of tremendous magnitude. A different interpretation is that these two galaxies are the fragments of one original galaxy undergoing fission, that is, blowing apart in an explosion that must be just as violent as Minkowski's ... "
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