Abstract
Christianity began as a Jewish sect, eventually evolving into a religious tradition in its own right. This paper examines why Christianity survived and traces the development of the Christian communities, as they began, through their persecution under the Roman state, to their eventual acceptance.
Outline
Introduction
Early Christian Literature and Liturgy
Christianity in the Roman Empire
Christianity and Constantine
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Possibly the most influential figure in the process of uniting these communities was Paul of Tarsus; a Hellenized Jew, a Pharisee, and a Roman Citizen. He underwent a conversion while traveling to Damascus. After this experience, he became one of Christianity's most prolific writers and travelers, authoring letters which today make up part of canonical scripture. He famously made several journeys to non-Jewish localities to evangelize, seeing himself as the "Apostle to the Gentiles." "

Tags:edict, milan, rome, paul, matthew

Abstract
In this essay the writer looks at the problems which arise from miracles and what the ramifications of these problems are. The paper addresses scientific, philosophical, theological and textual issues. It also considers several miracles in some depth including the resurrection. The writer discusses some of the ways in which Christians have dealt with these problems and the helpfulness that this has when considering the issues at hand.

From the Paper
"Miracles hold an undeniably important role within Christianity. They can be seen as a firm indication of the power and divinity of Jesus, God is seen as giving him the power to perform miracles. Certainly in John's gospel miracles are essential in demonstrating that Jesus is the Christ. Not only do miracles enhance the divinity of the figure of Jesus and the overall authority of Christianity but they also fulfill a position as a significant theological vehicle which frequently allows the evangelists to advance their own theological agenda. Furthermore the resurrection of Jesus, undeniably the most significant of all miracles in the gospels, is absolutely central to Christian theology and doctrine as it is in the present day. Despite the important role which miracles hold in both doctrine and the "hearts and minds" of believers, however, it is undeniable that the interpretation of them has changed through the advance of scientific knowledge and method. The scientific enlightenment devised several theories which seriously questioned the traditional way in which the Church had always maintained the world functioned. The theories of scientists such as Galileo and Copernicus began to demonstrate that the Earth was not as central to the universe as the Church had always held. As scientific method advanced the superstitious thought of many people began to destabilize and with it the claims for miracles decreased. In the twentieth century the former stance of accepting miracles and other paranormal phenomena has decreased. Many twentieth century Christians, nevertheless, argue that the miraculous content of the biblical narratives did indeed happen exactly as the evangelists recorded them. Some might argue that the events happened but the emphasis on them has been altered slightly to fit the agenda of the evangelists. Some contemporary liberal Christians, however, including David Jenkins, one-time Bishop of Durham, might argue that in fact the miracles as recorded did not happen at all. The accounts exist for reasons other than historical accuracy. Through an examination of the various problems which confront the twentieth century reader of the gospels and judging the efficacy of efforts to solve these problems it is, perhaps, possible to judge how the miracle accounts of the gospels might best be read and whether such a liberal reading is appropriate."

Tags:christ, experience, healing, jesus, religious, resurrection

Abstract
The writer argues that Christology of the fourth gospel is the most engaging and interesting of the New Testament. The writer addresses the major facets and purposes of the Christology. The author asks what the evangelist was seeking to show and how did he go about it. Interesting and thought provoking novel ideas are raised.

From the Paper
'In some senses the divinity of Jesus within the fourth gospel is very obvious. John does indeed portray Jesus as divine. In 10:28 Jesus states clearly, "I and my father are one." It is clear also from 20:30f that Jesus is the Christ and Thomas' declaration of Jesus as, "My Lord and my God" is effectively an explicit statement of divinity. The real issue here lies in an understanding of the divinity of the Johannine Jesus in a less superficial capacity. This leads to addressing the second part of the question. By asking what does John mean in terms of the divinity of Jesus it is not merely a general statement about the status of Jesus but a specific analysis of a special and unique kind of divinity. In order to understand this it is necessary to consider how John presents Jesus as divine. This refers not only to the manner in which Jesus is divine but to the literary and other devices which the fourth evangelist uses in order to make his case and bring us to an understanding of this divinity. Perhaps the most obvious starting point in such an inquiry is to briefly consider the Christological titles, being the clearest explanation of the status of Jesus. After this a more in depth consideration of the scriptural backing that John invokes to explain the Christology of Jesus is of vital importance. There are then certain other issues which need to be expanded on this subject including the contemporary expectations of various different statuses and roles in what might be called divinity. It has often been said that John has a high Christology and such does indeed prove to be the case. Nevertheless the concept that Jesus is simply indistinguishable from God and should be seen as a personification of the deity is incorrect; there is a very significant and defined role for Jesus as divine within the fourth gospel."

Tags:christ, divinity, messiah, revelation

Abstract
This paper examines Gnosticism which was a very real threat to the early Church and one which preoccupied many of the Church fathers. Any understanding of patristics in this period requires an understanding of Gnosticism and it is an understanding of the fundamentals which this essay seeks to provide. The paper discusses the extent to which it was a real threat to orthodoxy and the general trends of thought that brought it about.

From the Paper
"It is important not to suggest that Gnosticism is a different phenomenon to Christianity in terms of its belief structure or background as this is only partly the case. Many Gnostics who were branded heretics by their main stream Christian counterparts would have considered themselves to be Christians in a true sense despite many notable doctrinal differences between Gnostic and orthodox Christian groups. An examination of the relevant aspects reveals that Gnosticism was fundamentally a school of thought which affected an enormous group of beliefs at the time and was relevant to positions such as neo-Platonism and possibly even Judaism as well as Christianity. Gnosticism seemingly tended to attach itself to these other structures of belief and make partial use of their mythologies. Ultimately, then, Gnosticism is not the name of a coherent alternative to Christianity. It is rather more the name of a school of thought which was a product of the time and manifested itself in various other belief structures not even limited to religion. That said, however, there are two reasons why it might be considered specifically an alternative to Christianity. The first is that its doctrines do tie in well with the Christian position; so well in fact that many have argued that Christianity was influenced by Gnosticism from the very beginning. Secondly it remains the case that Christian Gnostics would be knowingly ostracizing themselves from the mainstream Church and regardless of whether they considered themselves Christians they were not such in accordance with Christianity at the time. In terms of the coherence of Gnosticism it is important to note that a good deal of the coherence of any particular Gnostic position depended on the other belief structures to which it was attached so it was never really possible to be a Gnostic without any engagement with other views. Perhaps the best descriptive phrasing of Gnosticism in reference to Christianity is that it is a potentially valid variant which is at odds with orthodoxy."

Tags:dualism, marcion, orthodoxy, redeemer, valentinius

Abstract
This paper examines the emergence in 19th century Britain of science as a respected body of professionals, rather than as an amateur hobby of the idle rich. The paper reviews the article "The Victorian Conflict between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension" by F. Turner. It looks at how the drive to raise professional standards within the new disciplines led to an increasing refusal to compromise scientific integrity to fit in with Church doctrine. This paper examines whether this conflict was caused by a fundamental opposition of science and religion or merely by individuals trying to resist or encourage the huge social changes occurring at the time.

From the Paper
"At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the clergy had a huge amount of influence on British society in terms of government, school and University education, patronage and the prestige, authority and reverence given to them by all social classes. Science, on the other hand, was nothing but a disunited collection of amateurs, who were not even granted their own collective noun. The term "scientist", although coined in 1834 by Reverend Whewell, did not come into popular use until the 1890s. Science in this early period was very much influenced by religion and many (though increasingly not all) both within and outside the scientific community considered it perfectly acceptable and natural for research to be conducted under the authority of and be limited by Church doctrine."

Tags:church, clergy, social, upheaval

Abstract
Salvation as a doctrine within Christianity is of immense importance and Irenaeus devoted a great deal of his life to fighting for what he considered to be the only acceptable orthodox perspective. The paper shows that much of his theology remains important to this day and the famous theodicy that bears his name is often invoked as a defense to the problem of evil. This essay describes many of his beliefs and outlines what he considered to be the most important facets of the Christian and Man's journey to salvation.

From the Paper
"The value of the theology of Irenaeus is linked, at least in part, with the fact that he is thoroughly representative of the "classic model" of salvation and was enormously important in fixing the lines on which Christian thought was to move for a great deal of time after his life. Part of this strength stems from the fact that Irenaeus does not make use of the more philosophical approach of groups like the Apologists or the Alexandrians but devoted himself to the more simple exposition of the central ideas of Christianity itself. He is also, however, the first Christian writer to provide a clear and comprehensive doctrine of redemption and the atonement. The smaller works of the apostolic fathers deal with this theme in a relatively incidental way and the same may be said of the Apologists, although this is not to say that the subject was in some sense secondary to them. With Irenaeus, however, the idea of redemption and salvation occurs frequently in his writings and are both centered around clear and unmistakable ideas and present a very strong basis which proceeding generations followed."

Tags:marcion, patristics, theodicy, valentinius

Abstract
This paper debates whether the Emperor Constantine can be considered a true Christian Emperor, or whether he was a Roman Emperor who adopted aspects of Christianity. In particular, it looks at his political needs and his establishment of the Senate and other institutions at Constantinople. It also examines his supposed conversion and whether it an be considered genuine or not.

From the Paper
"The principal primary sources we have for the life of Constantine are Eusebius' Vita Constantina, the writings of Lactantius, and the various edicts which Constantine himself put forward. These sources should be looked at in the context of Christianity and the tradition of Roman historical writing. Since Christianity was a new development, the roman historical traditions were still being taught to bishops and prominent Christian writers. In this tradition the agenda of the writer was exceptionally important; the writer's opinions affected most strongly what would be written down. Eusebius is no exception. 'I would be ashamed of myself if I did not put together what I can, little though it be and poor, for the one who out of his extraordinary devotion to God honoured us all.' Eusebius describes his ultimate goal of honouring Constantine, and throughout the book he commends Constantine highly as a Christian Emperor. "

Tags:bridge, eusebius, milvian, nicaea, paganism, senate

Abstract
This paper discusses how the ?great quarrel? between King Henry II of England and Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, represents the most famous and well-documented church-state dispute in medieval England and how reasons for such eminence lie in its bloody and tragic end rather than in the quarrel itself. It contextualises the relationship between the medieval church and state by examining the nature of monarchial power and the religious dynamic of 12th century England. It examines the reasons for the dispute, the contemporary reaction to it and the repercussions.

From the Paper
"Before Beckets accession to Archbishop he enjoyed a great friendship with Henry. Becket's appointment thus came as a result of this acquaintance, rather than his ecclesiastical background. Indeed Beckets only clerical position - the Archdeaconry of Canterbury was of secular rather than ecclesiastical character. Furthermore, the reputation of Archdeacon's in the twelfth century was far from sound - "they were given to extortion and injustice" and Becket was reprimanded on more than one occasion . Conscious of the kings favouritism, combined with the thoroughness he attached to his jobs, it is possible that Becket set out to prove his ecclesiastical worth, having already proven his secular pedigree."

Tags:church, state, archbishop

Abstract
The essay deals with the different roles of women in early medieval Europe and how they were affected by the spread of Christianity. Wives and the effect of new, Christianity inspired, marriage laws are discussed as well as the changing status of unmarried women, widows and female serfs. Female missionaries, nuns and saints all boosted the status of women. The role of Queens before and after the adoption of Christianity is covered, dealing with the positive and negative changes that took place. The essay concludes that overall Christianity had a positive effect on the role and status of women.500-1000A.D.

From the Paper
"The role and status of women in Western Europe between ca.500 and ca.1000 did change due to Christianity. However whether the female role and status in society was diminished or improved depends on a number of factors. Primarily, the type of woman in question must be taken into consideration. Queens, for example, were affected in a different way to female serfs. Secondly, we must also look at the role and status of women before the emergence of Christianity to make a valid judgment of change after ca.500. Thirdly, to a certain extent, the origin of the woman is a factor; Christianity affected different parts of Europe in a manner of different ways."

Tags:convents, dos, early, europe, female, laws, marriage, medieval, missionaries, monasteries, queens, saints, serfs, western, whitby

Abstract
This paper uses both the original Latin and English translation to examine the text of Thomas Aquinas' "Summa Theologica" and how it deals with questions about the existence of God.

From the Paper
"The problematic word in this phrase is omnes ("everyone") because it is never defined. What exactly does Aquinas mean by "everyone"? One possible answer to the question, seen for example in Velecky, is that he means "everyone who was anyone" - all well-known, respectable people. However, an alternative take on this word would be to say that Aquinas meant Deum ("God") to be a standard language device, used to refer to the Christian theistic metaphysical being, even if one did not believe. If a non-believer was to talk about Christian belief, they would have to use the word Deus (or its cognates) to refer to their supreme being."

Tags:dominican, medieval, monk