Abstract
The essay deals with the different roles of women in early medieval Europe and how they were affected by the spread of Christianity. Wives and the effect of new, Christianity inspired, marriage laws are discussed as well as the changing status of unmarried women, widows and female serfs. Female missionaries, nuns and saints all boosted the status of women. The role of Queens before and after the adoption of Christianity is covered, dealing with the positive and negative changes that took place. The essay concludes that overall Christianity had a positive effect on the role and status of women.500-1000A.D.

From the Paper
"The role and status of women in Western Europe between ca.500 and ca.1000 did change due to Christianity. However whether the female role and status in society was diminished or improved depends on a number of factors. Primarily, the type of woman in question must be taken into consideration. Queens, for example, were affected in a different way to female serfs. Secondly, we must also look at the role and status of women before the emergence of Christianity to make a valid judgment of change after ca.500. Thirdly, to a certain extent, the origin of the woman is a factor; Christianity affected different parts of Europe in a manner of different ways."

Tags:convents, dos, early, europe, female, laws, marriage, medieval, missionaries, monasteries, queens, saints, serfs, western, whitby

Abstract
Salvation as a doctrine within Christianity is of immense importance and Irenaeus devoted a great deal of his life to fighting for what he considered to be the only acceptable orthodox perspective. The paper shows that much of his theology remains important to this day and the famous theodicy that bears his name is often invoked as a defense to the problem of evil. This essay describes many of his beliefs and outlines what he considered to be the most important facets of the Christian and Man's journey to salvation.

From the Paper
"The value of the theology of Irenaeus is linked, at least in part, with the fact that he is thoroughly representative of the "classic model" of salvation and was enormously important in fixing the lines on which Christian thought was to move for a great deal of time after his life. Part of this strength stems from the fact that Irenaeus does not make use of the more philosophical approach of groups like the Apologists or the Alexandrians but devoted himself to the more simple exposition of the central ideas of Christianity itself. He is also, however, the first Christian writer to provide a clear and comprehensive doctrine of redemption and the atonement. The smaller works of the apostolic fathers deal with this theme in a relatively incidental way and the same may be said of the Apologists, although this is not to say that the subject was in some sense secondary to them. With Irenaeus, however, the idea of redemption and salvation occurs frequently in his writings and are both centered around clear and unmistakable ideas and present a very strong basis which proceeding generations followed."

Tags:marcion, patristics, theodicy, valentinius

Abstract
This paper examines the emergence in 19th century Britain of science as a respected body of professionals, rather than as an amateur hobby of the idle rich. The paper reviews the article "The Victorian Conflict between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension" by F. Turner. It looks at how the drive to raise professional standards within the new disciplines led to an increasing refusal to compromise scientific integrity to fit in with Church doctrine. This paper examines whether this conflict was caused by a fundamental opposition of science and religion or merely by individuals trying to resist or encourage the huge social changes occurring at the time.

From the Paper
"At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the clergy had a huge amount of influence on British society in terms of government, school and University education, patronage and the prestige, authority and reverence given to them by all social classes. Science, on the other hand, was nothing but a disunited collection of amateurs, who were not even granted their own collective noun. The term "scientist", although coined in 1834 by Reverend Whewell, did not come into popular use until the 1890s. Science in this early period was very much influenced by religion and many (though increasingly not all) both within and outside the scientific community considered it perfectly acceptable and natural for research to be conducted under the authority of and be limited by Church doctrine."

Tags:church, clergy, social, upheaval

Abstract
This essay examines the religious reforms implemented throughout King Akhenaten's reign of Ancient Egypt often termed the Amarna Period (c. 1360 - 1343 B.C.). It investigates how these reforms differed from the traditional religion that was practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time as well as the rationale and motives behind them. It examines the impact of these reforms and why, in the end, they were only temporary in nature, not lasting beyond Akhenaten's reign.

From the Paper
"As discussed, there were numerous religious reforms put forward by Akhenaten during his reign. However not all were successful. Indeed there were many problems with the changes Akhenaten implemented. His reforms were introduced with such force that they met with strong resistance. Despite Akhenaten's desire for there to be one god, the Aten, and his attempts to remove all other deities, the Egyptian people continued to worship the traditional gods (Ashcroft 2003, Stange 2000). Akhenaten's worship of the Aten was not as shared or supported by the Egyptian people as the Aten, as sole god, did not satisfy all of the Egyptian's religious requirements. R. David suggests the reason behind this is that "the Aten had no moral philosophy or attractive mythology which could inspire the general worshiper" (David 1993:157)."

Tags:monotheism, nefertiti, osiris, amarna, tuthmosis

Abstract
This paper looks at the genuine religious motivations and secular concerns, with recourse to the following:
1) Concept of 'clash of faiths' discussed.
2) Networks of clientage facilitating spread of dissent.
3) Individuals expressing religious insincerity.
4) Noble/Artisan divide.
5) Weakness of new kings.
6) Zeal in lower orders.
7) Rites of violence.
8) Calvinism as a binding force and intensifier.

From the Paper
"Any attempt to ascertain the 'role' of religion in the French Wars requires strict definitions in order to succeed, especially given the complexities attached to any examination of the motivations prevalent in the conversions which occurred in France. If one is to define religion as a particular system of faith and worship, then its fundamental role in initiating, aggravating and motivating the civil war is clear - one only need acknowledge the number of converts which allied themselves to Calvinism to appreciate this. Yet this neglects the questions invariably thrown up by the study of dissent during the wars; namely the extent to which converts were genuinely motivated by religious concerns. This entails an appreciation of the array of non-religious concerns which were vital ingredients in the conflicts, and demands for there to be constructed a second definition which might enable progress to be made along this route. If, therefore, one defines religion as something suggestive of spiritual belief and conviction, its fundamental role is less clear, for the traditional conclusions reached by historians, whilst never ruling out the importance of true religiosity, have tended to place a great deal of emphasis upon the political, economic and social concerns of the participants of the French Wars."

Tags:calvinism, catherine, de, french, henry, ii, medici, religion, wars

Abstract
This paper explains that the understanding of the growing prevalence of Islamic fundamentalism is greatly hindered by the tendency of historians to fuse the reasons for its growth with its perceived 'threat', which is often defined more by the political calculations of governments than the objectives of fundamentalist movements. The author points out that this growth is the manifestation of regional politics, social and economic inequalities and reaction against political authoritarianism and that the manifestations of Islamic fundamentalist movements are differentiated by virtue of specific local political structures and the colonial experiences of the individual North African countries. The paper relates that the gulf between the government in Egypt and society is so great that it depends on Al-Azhar to create an impression of religious legitimacy; while the government attempts to respond to concerns about foreign influences in the media, it has given Al-Azhar primary role over censorship of electronic media so that the government can shift the blame if need be.

From the Paper
"Given these simultaneous - and contradictory - impulses, of extension and fragmentation, one could argue that the movement's growth is defined from Western eyes by the implicit threat perceived in its spread. With some justification, the ideas of Hassan al-Banna or Sayyid Qutb, have such a wide currency across North Africa because of their ability to be transferred to different contexts. Hostility against Western notions of the secular state or nationalization is enunciated by 'Abd al-Slam Yasin, for example. In this way, therefore, is the spread of Islamic fundamentalist movements accentuated in Western perspectives by its ideological 'threat'. And yet, in fact, such a threat materializes generally only when these ideas are mobilized to suit the political needs or objectives of the ruler."

Tags:egypt, libya, morocco, tunisia, al-azhar

Abstract
This paper debates whether the Emperor Constantine can be considered a true Christian Emperor, or whether he was a Roman Emperor who adopted aspects of Christianity. In particular, it looks at his political needs and his establishment of the Senate and other institutions at Constantinople. It also examines his supposed conversion and whether it an be considered genuine or not.

From the Paper
"The principal primary sources we have for the life of Constantine are Eusebius' Vita Constantina, the writings of Lactantius, and the various edicts which Constantine himself put forward. These sources should be looked at in the context of Christianity and the tradition of Roman historical writing. Since Christianity was a new development, the roman historical traditions were still being taught to bishops and prominent Christian writers. In this tradition the agenda of the writer was exceptionally important; the writer's opinions affected most strongly what would be written down. Eusebius is no exception. 'I would be ashamed of myself if I did not put together what I can, little though it be and poor, for the one who out of his extraordinary devotion to God honoured us all.' Eusebius describes his ultimate goal of honouring Constantine, and throughout the book he commends Constantine highly as a Christian Emperor. "

Tags:bridge, eusebius, milvian, nicaea, paganism, senate

Abstract
This paper attempts to identify why technology may no longer be just our slave, but our tyrant. Technology clearly shapes the way we live today, and is now no less of a significant influence than religion or the government for determining how we shall live tomorrow. We can perceive technology as the artificial enhancement of human power, which will be used to serve all of our needs within the twenty first century. However is our society learning that technology is potentially self-destructive, and would it be so welcomed if people really new how it will impact our life in the future, and the nature of mankind.

From the Paper
"It appears that as technology advances, it will continue to play an increasingly significant role in the future and shape of mankind. We must remember that whatever technology does to our lives, technology in itself is not to blame, but rather how we use it. Humans should not become so dependant on technology that it dictates the way in which we live our lives, and the fundamental decisions we make. Technology is certainly a virtue of human intelligence, but we must be careful not to phase ourselves out, and create more wrong than good. In conclusion I would say that technology should be used to support our efforts, but not replace our efforts."

Tags:automation, future, impact, new, society, technologies

Abstract
This paper discusses how the ?great quarrel? between King Henry II of England and Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, represents the most famous and well-documented church-state dispute in medieval England and how reasons for such eminence lie in its bloody and tragic end rather than in the quarrel itself. It contextualises the relationship between the medieval church and state by examining the nature of monarchial power and the religious dynamic of 12th century England. It examines the reasons for the dispute, the contemporary reaction to it and the repercussions.

From the Paper
"Before Beckets accession to Archbishop he enjoyed a great friendship with Henry. Becket's appointment thus came as a result of this acquaintance, rather than his ecclesiastical background. Indeed Beckets only clerical position - the Archdeaconry of Canterbury was of secular rather than ecclesiastical character. Furthermore, the reputation of Archdeacon's in the twelfth century was far from sound - "they were given to extortion and injustice" and Becket was reprimanded on more than one occasion . Conscious of the kings favouritism, combined with the thoroughness he attached to his jobs, it is possible that Becket set out to prove his ecclesiastical worth, having already proven his secular pedigree."

Tags:church, state, archbishop

Abstract
This paper uses both the original Latin and English translation to examine the text of Thomas Aquinas' "Summa Theologica" and how it deals with questions about the existence of God.

From the Paper
"The problematic word in this phrase is omnes ("everyone") because it is never defined. What exactly does Aquinas mean by "everyone"? One possible answer to the question, seen for example in Velecky, is that he means "everyone who was anyone" - all well-known, respectable people. However, an alternative take on this word would be to say that Aquinas meant Deum ("God") to be a standard language device, used to refer to the Christian theistic metaphysical being, even if one did not believe. If a non-believer was to talk about Christian belief, they would have to use the word Deus (or its cognates) to refer to their supreme being."

Tags:dominican, medieval, monk