Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that Piaget was renowned for his work within the field of cognitive development, particularly child development. The writer points out that he dedicated most of his time looking into how children's minds develop throughout their childhood. The writer discusses that Piaget's theory is based upon four stages, which he argued the child will go through in a systematic orderly way. The writer maintains that although there have been some psychologists who have criticised his work, it still provides some vital information and understanding into how children's minds develop. The writer concludes that overall, Piaget has provided today's society with a greater understanding within the field of child development.

From the Paper
"Once a child reaches the age of 7-11 years old, Piaget believed that they progress into the concrete operational stage. In this stage children are able to complete conservation tasks. As well as this, they are also less egotistical, and are able to look at more than there own point of view; this was demonstrated by correctly completing the mountain task. Piaget also looked at transitivity tasks. For example, looking at if A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be larger than C. He found that children in this stage were only able to complete this task successfully, if the objects were present.
"One part of Piaget's theory that he did not seem to consider, was the universal aspect. Not all of his theory can be applied to all countries and cultures."

Tags:awareness, self, senses, reflexes

Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is lifelong, notoriously hard to treat, and includes aspects that have long puzzled researchers. Yet despite this, BPD is a relatively common disorder found in 11% of all psychiatric outpatients and 19% of all psychiatric inpatients. This paper discusses the characteristics of the disorder and then presents the Beck-Young cognitive models and Kernberg's psychodynamic model, of understanding and treating BPD for comparison. In the final part, the author presents his view as to which framework he would prefer to use and why.

From the Paper
"The treatment models proposed by the two frameworks first appear to be very different from one another. Psychoanalysis proposes that we are protected from our unconscious thoughts by a variety of defence mechanisms to disguise any unconscious material that might leak into our consciousness. Therefore in therapy, psychoanalysis attempts to expose the unconscious processes and assumes that the ego, relieved of its burden of trying to seal off the unconscious material, will then provide realistic corrections. In cognitive therapy, the distorted/illogical thought processes are exposed to the patient through reality testing and thus relies to the patient to use her rationality to correct her irrationality (Beck, 1985). Because psychoanalysis for BPD probes into the patient's unconscious and is primarily a 'transference' based technique that does not focus on specific symptoms, it can typically take up to 7 years to complete. On the other hand cognitive therapy for BPD targets symptoms directly and produces results on a much shorter time scale - typically 1-2 years (Beck et al., 1990). "

Tags:psychoanalysis, psychiatric, cognitive, therapy

Abstract
This paper attempts to compare two effective models of counseling, rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT) and psychodynamic therapy. It looks at how they work, the role of the counselor and various actions the models have on the client. It evaluates which of the two models is best suited the field of herbal medicine by considering their strengths and weaknesses.

From the Paper
"The role of the counselor within REBT counseling appears to be to help facilitate the reconstruction/rearrangement, by the client, of how they consider themselves, their view of the world and his/her individual experiences by employing various methods. Hill & Dryden (1993) briefly explain how the counselor's role is one of guide and instigator of a regime of self-change and self-help sustained by the client's own energy with the counselor maintaining an authoritative but not authoritarian, guidance role. In contrast, during Psychodynamic counseling, the counselor helps the client achieve insight by interpreting the client's unconscious mental content. One of the main tools of psychodynamic counseling is "the Transference"; the use of this tool is also one of the main differences between psychodynamic counseling and other forms of counseling."

Tags:ego, herbal, rational, relationship, superego, transference, client

Abstract
In recruiting and retaining employees for any organization, it is of foremost importance to select the most qualified to enhance productivity and profit. The selection methods chosen by employers to distinguish between employees therefore need to be both valid and reliable. This essay critically evaluates three assessment methods, interviews, psychometric tests, and bio-data, with regards to their validity and reliability, highlighting common operating biases, such as impression management, social desirability, and evaluation apprehension on the part of the applicant, as well as stereotyping on the part of the employer. The three methods chosen are extensively employed by organizations to discern the best applicant; understanding their relative weaknesses and strengths should be of foremost importance for employers.

From the Paper
"Personality assessments, alternatively, allow the employer insight into the applicant, enabling the competencies established during job analysis to be directly matched. Personality tests usually relate to trait models of personality. Trait theories assert that behaviour is consistent and determined by individual characteristics as opposed to situational factors. Costa and McCrae (1976, cited in Cooper, 2002) established five separate 'traits'; extraversion; neuroticism; openess to experience; agreeableness; and conscientiousness; and argued that personality comprises of differing poles of each trait. The model is widely accepted, representing seventy-five years of factor analytic research on observers' ratings of personality (Goldberg, 1993, cited in English and Griffith, 2004)."

Tags:cognitive, predictive, social

Abstract
This paper examines how the structure vs. agency debate is one of the most highly contentious dualisms within the social sciences. By providing an evaluation of the theories surrounding the debate and an overview of the nature of it, the paper seeks to explain the basis of the argument and the predominant schools of thought on the subject. Theoretically the paper concentrates on the monocausal theories of structuralism and intentionalism and the dialectical theories of structuration and the strategic-relational approach.

From the Paper
"The structure-agency debate has existed in one form or another for 'decades indeed arguably centuries' (McAnulla. 1999. p1) and has been based around philosophical questions and other similar dualisms. It seeks to address the extent to which individuals control their lives through their own actions in order to reach their goals, compared to how actors' lives are structurally controlled by external forces. Therefore, structure can be seen as the social and physical environment (context) in which individual actors inhabit, and which limits, causes or allows directly or indirectly our actions within. On the other hand, agency refers to an individual's ability to make changes or control their social and physical environment in order to reach their goals. "

Tags:Individualism, Holism

Abstract
This paper examines the urgent need for changes in the classification of personality disorders. The paper discusses the current classification model for personality set forth by DSM 4. It looks at the problems associated with this system of classification, including high level of co-morbidity and lack of theoretical or empirical rationale for selection of categories. The paper looks at proposed alternative classification systems, such as dimensional systems where extreme scores are representative of psychopathology.

From the Paper
"Personality disorders are longstanding patterns of extreme, inflexible personality traits that are deviant or maladaptive and lead to impaired functioning or subjective distress. (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 1994). The essential feature of a personality disorder is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture."

Tags:apa, dimensional, psychiatry, research

Abstract
This paper discusses the background and current status of cognitive behavior therapy. It lists the challenges facing cognitive behavior therapy and discusses the need for this form of therapy to address these issues. The paper then describes three cognitive restructuring therapies and discusses how they are implemented in practice. It also discusses the theory and practice of the problem-solving therapies and the cognitive learning theory.

Table of Contents:
Current Status
Theory
Methodology
Applications
Summary

From the Paper
"If Cognitive Behaviour Therapy can effectively deal with these concerns, it will unquestionably develop into a key force within clinical psychology. Nevertheless, in spite of its recognition amongst several therapists, not all behaviourally oriented researchers are in favour of this form of therapy. For instance, Eysenck (1979), a staunch S-R theorist, cautioned that "Although cognitive theories seem fashionable at the moment among some behaviour therapists who should know better. . . being fashionable is not the same as being correct, or useful, or in line with the evidence." He indicated that "Cognitive theory, per contra, does not even exist as a 'theory' that could meaningfully be criticized or tested; it is an aspiration, born of mentalistic preconceptions, in search of hypotheses."
"Wolpe (1978, p. 442) stated that that, "Behaviour therapists have deliberately influenced their patients' thinking ever since formal behaviour therapy of the neuroses came into existence"; for this reason he believed that cognitive approaches to therapy had always been incorporated with the behavioural techniques. "Thought," wrote Wolpe, "obeys the same 'mechanistic' laws as motor or autonomic behaviour" (p. 438). The principles of conditioning are adequate to account for cognition, and overt behaviour is an adequate indicator of this conditioning."

Tags:CBT counseling treatment

Abstract
This paper discusses how Freud has been regarded as one of the most influential figures of the twentieth century and how his published works and theories still remain as a major source of inspiration and contention for modern day psychiatrists and psychotherapists and continue to be widely discussed and queried by scholars and practitioners. It looks at how his ideas and theories have filtered into the mainstream and become an accepted part of modern psychology. It also discusses how he reached his beliefs, how his predecessors and contemporaries influenced him and how his theories became so widespread.

From the Paper
"He further proposed that infants enter the world as fully sexualised beings without inhibition (the incarnation of the id) and then, as they go through the growing up process, defined in the psychodynamic stages of development, slowly become educated into repressing these desires and become a civilised member of society. These stages all correspond to an erogenous zone, which the child needs to satisfy and repress before moving to the next phase in order to maintain a functional personality. According to Freud, incomplete repression at any stage of these desires will result in either perversion (a term used by Freud to include homosexuality and masochism), hysteria, or unhappiness. These people become trapped by their infantile appetites, fixated at a particular stage, unable to move forward until they have dealt with these feelings through psychoanalysis by rationally condemning them."

Tags:breuer, catharsis, charcot, ego, hypnosis, psychoanalysis, psychology, repression, resistance

Abstract
This essay outlines the different syndromes under the personality disorder umbrella as classified by the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM IV). It examines the diagnostic problems that are commonly encountered because of the confusing and overlapping aetiology. It also mentions how the classification system reinforces of gender stereotypes. The causation of personality theories, including trait theories (e.g. Eynsenck), psychoanalytic models, and psychobiology, is then analyzed, and the relationship of these theories to specific disorders is discussed.

From the Paper
"The word personality refers to the, "dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychological systems that create the person's characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings" (Allport, 1961, cited in Carver and Scheier, 2004, p.5). People tend to behave in relatively predictable ways, yet personality also develops as a response to environment and change. Most people are able to learn from past experiences and adapt their personalities accordingly. A functional personality is therefore one that is both predictable and flexible to adaptation in accordance with societal rules."

Tags:anti, biological, borderline, diagnosis, disorder, dsm, eysenck, factor, five, freud, gender, illness, mental, model, personality, problems, psycho, psychoanalytic, social, stereotypes, stigma, traits

Abstract
This paper focuses on two theoretical approaches of psychopathology concerning abnormal behavior in humans, the behavioral approach and the cognitive approach. These two approaches are compared and contrasted. The paper considers their effectiveness in both explaining the origins of, and treating mental disorders. The paper's explanation of the behavioral approach includes a look at modeling, operant conditioning and classical conditioning. The cognitive model is portrayed as an evolved behaviorist model. The paper explains that cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes, such as thoughts and emotions, drive behavior. The conclusion drawn by the paper is that the therapies that work best are ones that use combinations and treatments of these models, such as the cognitive-behaviorist model.

From the Paper
"The first theoretical approach that shall be focused on is behaviorism. The underlying connotations of this approach is that all human behavior, whether it being internal (mental) or external (observable), is determined by the experiences a person has undergone, and how they have learned from them. One of the positive aspects of behaviorism is that it can be tested, observed and measured easily, unlike most psychological theories and models. Behaviorists have come to the conclusion that all human behavior has been conditioned. This belief originated in the 1950's where psychologists performed experiments on the behavior of organisms and through conditioning they could be taught how to act or behave in certain predicted ways. Through this method they applied several of these methods as being the cause of human functioning and if done incorrectly then could be the cause for abnormal functioning."

Tags:psychology, cognitive, behaviorism, bandura, beck