Abstract
This paper examines how the aetiology of mental illness has rested mainly on the notion that the main contributing factors rest in the biological school of thought and how it was not until the 19th century that psychological explanations began to emerge. This paper seeks to explore the differing factors of the aetiology of mental illness from the differing schools of thought in the psychological, biological and sociological perspectives.

From the Paper
"Concepts of mental health include subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others. From a cross-cultural perspective, it is nearly impossible to define mental health comprehensively." The World Health Report (2001) Spanning almost 2,500 years explanations as to the aetiology of mental illness has rested mainly on the notion that the main contributing factors rest in the biological school of thought and it was not until the 19th century that psychological explanations began to emerge. Furthermore, the 20th century brought new and different ways of thinking and social issues became more prominent. This essay will seek to explore the differing factors of the aetiology of mental illness from the differing schools of thought in the psychological, biological and sociological perspectives."

Tags:anti, behaviourism, biochemistry, constructionism, disorders, dsm, psychogenesis, schizophrenia, social, theory

Abstract
Nature vs. nurture has been a long-standing debate since the 17th century and refers to the degrees in which a person's natural human experiences influence a persons' physical and behavioural traits as opposed to environmental influences. This paper looks into a variety of different theories from different fields of psychology, from cognitive to biological and developmental and critically assesses the issues involved.

From the Paper
"Ideas from a biological theory has advanced and evolved from many years, and will probably continue. Research has proved that sex hormones are a cause of our behaviour but according to a book by Gisela Kaplan and Lesley J Rogers 'Gene Worship' proves otherwise. They state that the brain controls the amount of sex hormones secreted into the blood. Most of the times at a stable range but from time to time these vary, especially at different times of the day for women, allowing sex hormones through the blood fairy quickly. Stress and experiences has an affect on the brains control of these hormone levels altering levels of Luteinizing Hormone and Follicle Hormone released from the pituitary gland, proving that sex hormones in the blood can change in response to the external environment. "

Tags:cognitive, biological, developmental

Abstract
This paper provides a brief description of Victor Vroom's expectancy theory which states that people are motivated if they can see a link between their effort (of completing a task) and the expected performance, as well as a link between the expected performance and the desired outcome or reward. In particular, the author applies the theory to his personal experiences while serving in the navy.

Outline:
Introduction
Description of Theory
Description of Experience
Analysis Using Expectancy Theory
Evaluation and Alternatives
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Vroom's expectancy theory can be considered invaluable in terms of serving as a basis for further analysis and helping to "understand the complexity of motivation." (Callahan et al. 1986, p.96) Moreover, it aids managers to reflect on the different outcomes of behaviour, it clarifies the relationship between organizational and individual goals and even suggests some managerial action, such as the design of training schemes and job design. David J. Cherrington suggests that "motivation problems are solved by altering the components of expectancy theory: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence." (1994) "

Tags:navy, motivation

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses and considers the ever-current topic of stress. The writer looks at the effects of stress on certain aspects of the workplace and how complimentary therapies could be used, and are being considered as an effective method for treatment and prevention. The writer notes that the costs of stress, in terms of money and health in the UK and companies in general, is extremely high. The writer also points out how small steps towards combating stress using alternative therapies can be very effective. In comparison, the relatively small cost of alternative therapy treatments versus the huge cost of long term sickness, lost work days, prescription costs and general drainage on NHS resources makes prevention of stress, using alternative therapies, a worthwhile investment. The writer concludes that many more companies should be encouraged to make the most of effective stress prevention using alternative therapies as a means of caring for their workforce and helping the UK towards being a low-stress environment in which to work.

Outline:
Early Ideas of Stress
Stress and the Individual
Work Related Stress
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Kasl's theory also suggests that psychological strain results from the joint effect of the demands of a work situation and the range of decision-making discretions available to the worker facing those demands. This theory is also supported by Wallace et al in the finding that people working in high demand but low control positions report the highest frequency of stress symptoms and have the highest level of stress related illnesses. In support of this is a study reported by European Foundations for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions found, from a sample of 1600 Swedish men, 20% of them were experiencing heart disease symptoms, of these men all reported psychologically demanding jobs with a low degree of decision making latitude. By contrast, workers who reported low psychological demands and high levels of skill discretion had no symptoms of heart disease."

Tags:stressful, motivation, productivity, environment

Abstract
This paper attempts to compare two effective models of counseling, rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT) and psychodynamic therapy. It looks at how they work, the role of the counselor and various actions the models have on the client. It evaluates which of the two models is best suited the field of herbal medicine by considering their strengths and weaknesses.

From the Paper
"The role of the counselor within REBT counseling appears to be to help facilitate the reconstruction/rearrangement, by the client, of how they consider themselves, their view of the world and his/her individual experiences by employing various methods. Hill & Dryden (1993) briefly explain how the counselor's role is one of guide and instigator of a regime of self-change and self-help sustained by the client's own energy with the counselor maintaining an authoritative but not authoritarian, guidance role. In contrast, during Psychodynamic counseling, the counselor helps the client achieve insight by interpreting the client's unconscious mental content. One of the main tools of psychodynamic counseling is "the Transference"; the use of this tool is also one of the main differences between psychodynamic counseling and other forms of counseling."

Tags:ego, herbal, rational, relationship, superego, transference, client

Abstract
This paper gives a detailed analysis of the many types of comedy in modern society and what role humor can play in our lives. Different forms of comedy are analyzed such as slapstick, farce, stand-up comedy, parody and tragi-comedy.

From the Paper
"Comedy has been used as an escape from the tensions of real life for centuries. Laughter seems to be the one uniquely human sensation that there is; there seems little possibility that animals experience humor. Comedy is an essential part of everyday life, as it is regularly on television and radio and in literature. It is often through comedy that we can take a look at our lives and the issues that govern them, and to some extent comedy shapes the world in which we live."

Tags:farce, parody, slapstick, humor

Abstract
This paper examines the Hawthorne studies and the two main experiments that took place between 1924 ? 1933 at the Hawthorne plant of the Western electric company-- the illumination study and the relay assembly test room study. It describes how testing was carried out, how the data was collected and the results of the research. The experiments were paid for by General Electric (GE) and were originally implemented to see the correlation between productivity of workers and the light levels used while working.

From the Paper
"There were many problems with the Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment and these problems have caused much controversy on whether or not the Hawthorne effect actually exists or not. Dr H. McIlvaine Parsons researched the theory in 1972 and even went back to the Hawthorne Plant where the experiments took place. He discovered some very interesting flaws in the published reports. He discovered that the test room was better ventilated, quieter and brighter than the relay assembly floor, and the observers were gentle friendly people unlike their normal supervisors. He also discovered that two women were replaced from the experiment after eight months because they were becoming disruptive and their work rates were dropping. It is also possible that the steady rate of increase could be explained by the mere fact that as time passed the women simply became more talented and confident in their jobs."

Tags:electric, general, light, levels

Abstract
This paper examines the urgent need for changes in the classification of personality disorders. The paper discusses the current classification model for personality set forth by DSM 4. It looks at the problems associated with this system of classification, including high level of co-morbidity and lack of theoretical or empirical rationale for selection of categories. The paper looks at proposed alternative classification systems, such as dimensional systems where extreme scores are representative of psychopathology.

From the Paper
"Personality disorders are longstanding patterns of extreme, inflexible personality traits that are deviant or maladaptive and lead to impaired functioning or subjective distress. (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 1994). The essential feature of a personality disorder is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture."

Tags:apa, dimensional, psychiatry, research

Abstract
This paper examines through a literature review how genetic, biological, environment and family factors all appear to be viable when researching the etiology of psychopathy even though no clear cause has yet been established. It discusses how research into a combination of the different factors would contribute more to our understanding of the condition and how, until additional epidemiological evidence is gathered, causality is not likely be established.

From the Paper
"The inclusion of a factor that would stimulate or push for antisocial behaviour, such as heightened impulsivity, has been taken into consideration when researching the etiology of psychopathy Gorenstein et al (1980) . Frontal lobes are thought to play a major role in inhibiting impulsivity and any such dysfunction in them could therefore heighten impulsivity. Studies showing that psychopaths have impaired performance on neuropsychological tests of frontal functioning and reduced gray matter in the frontal lobes support the idea of heightened impulsivity Dinn & Harris, (2000) , Raine et al (2000) . Patterson & Newman (1993) demonstrated that heightened impulsivity shows up when psychopaths are presented with a task designed to test their ability to modify their responses depending on success or failure."

Tags:anti, behaviour, genetics, neurobiological, research, social, socialization

Abstract
This paper focuses on two theoretical approaches of psychopathology concerning abnormal behavior in humans, the behavioral approach and the cognitive approach. These two approaches are compared and contrasted. The paper considers their effectiveness in both explaining the origins of, and treating mental disorders. The paper's explanation of the behavioral approach includes a look at modeling, operant conditioning and classical conditioning. The cognitive model is portrayed as an evolved behaviorist model. The paper explains that cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes, such as thoughts and emotions, drive behavior. The conclusion drawn by the paper is that the therapies that work best are ones that use combinations and treatments of these models, such as the cognitive-behaviorist model.

From the Paper
"The first theoretical approach that shall be focused on is behaviorism. The underlying connotations of this approach is that all human behavior, whether it being internal (mental) or external (observable), is determined by the experiences a person has undergone, and how they have learned from them. One of the positive aspects of behaviorism is that it can be tested, observed and measured easily, unlike most psychological theories and models. Behaviorists have come to the conclusion that all human behavior has been conditioned. This belief originated in the 1950's where psychologists performed experiments on the behavior of organisms and through conditioning they could be taught how to act or behave in certain predicted ways. Through this method they applied several of these methods as being the cause of human functioning and if done incorrectly then could be the cause for abnormal functioning."

Tags:psychology, cognitive, behaviorism, bandura, beck