Abstract
This paper examines how moral relativism is the view that moral standards are grounded only in social custom, an ethical judgement and how moral relativists believe that absolute moral laws do not exist but, that society deems whether an action to be right or wrong. It also looks at how the position taken by moral relativism can in my opinion be classified into two branches, subjectivism and conventionalism.

From the Paper
"First of all, we might dispute whether there really is as much cultural variation of beliefs concerning morality as moral relativists offer. Within western culture there are without doubt a set of morals that governs, there are diversities however, they are dwarfed by the similarities. How many moral issues are different between the cultures of England and France? Many moral relativists would argue against this by saying that England and France are part of the same culture. In my opinion, they are different culture with similar if not the same moral values. This destroys the position of the moral relativists. Moral relativists tend to ignore the similarities between differing cultures and focus too heavily on the diversity."

Tags:ethical, judgement, subjectivism, conventionalism

Abstract
This paper discusses the arguments for and against the notion that without God there can be no morality. Arguments include the humanist angle from the philosopher Peter Singer and also individualist notions from Kant. The views of other philosophers such as Plato, Keirkegaard and Dostoevskii are also examined as well as religious textual examples.

From the Paper
"If an act is to be considered good merely because God decided it was so, then ethics are completely arbitrary. God easily could have decided that the horrific and monstrous acts such as paedophilia and rape were virtuous, and ergo, by definition they would be 'good' acts. However, I believe that "God is not...an instrumental means for acquiring independent goods" . Instead of basing morality on the fallible nature of theistic belief, why not base morality on observed consequences. Start, instead from the position that many people hold, that "a wrong act is one that manifestly harms others or their interests, or violates their rights or causes injustice" This view provides the underlying thinking behind and is prevalent within, all major human rights legislation, with the notion of God and morality, never being mentioned. "

Tags:Dostoevskii, Keirkegaard, Peter, Singer, Kant, Ethics, Plato

Abstract
The paper looks at the views of Plato, Aristotle, Elisabeth Anscombe and Alasdair MacIntyre on virtues and defines the strengths and weaknesses of virtue ethics when applying the virtues to real life. The paper shows how there are no concrete rules for people to follow, yet the theory is more practical than other normative theories because it is agent-centered and based around the type of person one is.

From the Paper
"Virtue ethics originated from the well known philosophers Aristotle and Plato and is based on the concept of being virtuous and achieving virtues. A virtue is a character trait of excellence that leads people to making the right choices and to happiness, to be a virtue it must have a good end. For example, a terrorist may have the virtue of courage but their actions lead to death and this is not considered a good end, the terrorist would therefore not be considered virtuous."

Tags:Plato, Aristotle, golden, mean, eudaimonia, pronesis

Abstract
Euthanasia is defined as the intentional killing of a dependent human being for his or her alleged benefit. This paper thoroughly researches medical ethics, presenting arguments for and against the legalization of euthanasia. It explores the psychology of ageing and illness, the limits of personal autonomy and the impacts legalization may have on public conscience.

From the Paper
"Ironically, voluntary euthanasia legislation makes doctors less accountable, and gives them more power. Patients generally decide in favour of euthanasia on the basis of information given to them by doctors: information about their diagnosis, prognosis, treatments available and anticipated degree of future suffering. If a doctor confidently suggests a certain course of action it can be very difficult for a patient to resist.

Tags:medical, Thomas, More, terminally, ill, Remmelink, Report

Abstract
After taking the necessary step of considering and modifying the phrasing of the statement, and defining the "right" moral principles under a utilitarian system, the paper begins by discussing Mill's "sanctions" of his morality. The concept of "conscience" and the essential social nature of mankind is also discussed and found to be useful in the debate.

From the Paper
"Furthermore, the "bribes and threats" element of the statement is similar to the legal and political systems of any civilized country. For example, the "bribes" could be the incentive of a health system or an armed defense force in return for a member of society paying their taxes, while the threats are the punishments legislated for breaking the law, which in this case is effectively refusal to adopt the right moral principles as defined by society. It cannot be denied that both the bribes and threats are necessary for the smooth and orderly running of society, to make sure those who do not adopt the right morals do not profit over those who do. While they may not make them truly adopt these moral principles, these threats should at least make them superficially conform to them."

Tags:bentham, happiness, justice, kant, mill, morality, motive, pain, pleasure, utilitarianism, utility

Abstract
This paper examines how John Mill's utilitarianism is based on the greatest happiness principle - that an action is right (and indeed morally right) in so far as it promotes happiness and wrong in so far as it promotes unhappiness. It looks at how Mill believes that there are different degrees of rightness and wrongness, depending on the amount of happiness or unhappiness generated. It also explores how consequentialism is the view that the value of an action derives entirely from the value of its consequences and that its value cannot be intrinsic or be altered by the kind of character whose action it is. It evaluates whether it follows that Mill's Utilitarianism then must be seen as a form of consequentialism.

From the Paper
"The question of equality is also important. Given the choice between making one person extremely happy and another nine people neither happy nor unhappy or making each of the ten people moderately happy, which is better? According to the utilitarian principle, the better action would be the one that maximises overall happiness, assuming that the application of fairness will have no other effects on utility in general. If the two situations produce the same overall happiness however, utilitarianism does not distinguish between which is better of the two. One can argue that this decision will not have to be made that often, as the diminishing law of returns will mean that reducing the happiness of one such person by a small amount will allow one to increase the happiness of the others by a proportionally greater amount, however the situation may still arise in certain discrete circumstances and unless guided by other notions of morality, the utilitarian will not be placed to make such a judgement."

Tags:actualism, equality, happiness

Abstract
This paper examines how act utilitarianism is a direct moral theory and how the morally right action is the one that maximises happiness. In comparison, it looks at how rule utilitarianism, while concerned with actions, is a more indirect theory in which the morally right action is not the one that necessarily maximises happiness in every situation. It considers whether John Mill is an act or rule utilitarian, using Mill's idea of customary morality and evaluates which version of utilitarianism is more plausible.

From the Paper
"Rule utilitarianism is not then very plausible as a form of utilitarianism, but it does at least offer answers to some of the problems with act utilitarianism. If one is to maximise happiness then in theory one has to calculate the welfare values associated with every potential action. This is obviously not realistic as one would have to spend a good deal of one's live calculating such values, which itself would surely not lead to happiness being maximised as these calculations themselves can not be described as particularly pleasurable. Indeed would someone really stand on the shore contemplating the consequences of saving a drowning man for more than a split second before acting?"

Tags:morality, worship, happiness

Abstract
In this article, the writer assesses the nature and characteristics of Victorian moral values. The primary values are highlighted and examined in turn. The work specifically shows, however, the extent to which such values were not equally applicable to all. The writer discusses that differing social, economic and legal conditions dictated that certain sections of Victorian society were removed from this system of values. As such, the writer maintains that it was the unequal nature of Victorian society that guided the extent to which individuals would adhere to the fundamental values of the day.

From the Paper
"However, although in principle such moral values were intended to equally apply to the full cross-section of Victorian society, practically this was impossible due to the extreme social, economic and legal conditions in which many people were forced to exist. On the one hand there existed a sincere willingness to instil a common public morality, but this was often contradicted by the very real poverty and statutory discrimination that was engrained into certain sections of Victorian society. A clear example of this disparity is provided with the issue of women. The two primary texts of analysis used here are Henry Mayhew's observations about the plight of London's needlewomen, published in the Morning Chronicle, 1849 and John Stuart Mill's work on The Subjugation of Women, 1869. Both provide validation to the claim that in many cases; economic, social and legal limitations dictated that Victorian women were simply unable to pursue the moral societal aims of their male counterparts. Each work is discussed individually."

Tags:social, conditions, poverty, discrimination

Abstract
Freedom of expression is one of the crucial ideas, if not the crucial idea, behind modern concepts of liberty and democracy. This paper discusses the issues surrounding the limitations on free speech with reference to John Stuart Mill, John Rawls, Thomas Hobbes and other philosophers.

From the Paper
"This issue of whether and to what extent to curtail free speech has a clear role in that most historical significant of liberal documents, the American constitution. Its first amendment prevents the executive or Congress from passing legislation which curtails freedom of expression, freedom of the press or the right to openly petition the government for any grievance. The United States, does, of course have a slightly contrary relationship with freedom; for all its commitment to "life, liberty and happiness" it took until the 1960s to get rid of institutionalised racism, and it still lags behind Europe in its attitudes on gay marriage and abortion. However, of most relevance to this essay is the Patriot act of 2001, which sought to use the power of the state to curtail unnecessary liberties which created fertile ground for terrorism."

Tags:hobbes, rawls, democracy, philosophy, civil, liberty, rights, islam, terrorism

Abstract
This paper examines the principles of utilitarianism, a deontological theory that assesses morality by looking ahead to the end result and the consequences that it will cause in terms if the happiness generated. It outlines some of the criticisms leveled at utilitarianism as a theory- such as those of ignoring personal factors, being too complex to undertake,and not allowing for any concrete intrinsic moral values.

From the Paper
"It is also not possible for an individual to be able to fully envisage all of the possible consequences an action might lead to. The decision made may therefore not be fully informed and could have disastrous unforeseeable results. As a deontological theory then, it becomes redundant. The act of calculation itself becomes too complicated to be able to employ in everyday life. People are not able to contemplate any result that could arise from any action they consider in terms of the happiness benefit. This hugely undermines the practicality of such a theory, as it would unrecognizably transform a persons life."

Tags:consequentialism, ethics, mills, morality, philosophy, rawls, theory, williams