Abstract
This paper examines to what extent is it necessary to qualify the description of Herodotus as a historian. It looks at how Herodotus's perception of history is far removed from the critical eye of a modern historian, and this paper considers where the discrepancies lie and appreciates Herodotus's "Histories".

From the Paper
"Herodotus' attempts to draw moral lessons from the study of great events formed the basis of Greek and Roman historical tradition upheld by later historians such as Livy. He intended to arouse political awareness and responsibility by recalling examples from the events of the past. The Persian Wars, between Eastern and Western powers, brings to mind the Peloponnesian war; in the same way that Croesus did not have to attack Persia, nor did Athens have to attack Sicily. Like Aristophanes in his comedies, Herodotus is unable to entirely divorce his own political sympathies from his work. At 3.80-2 three figures give conflicting speeches on the virtues of democracy, oligarchy and monarchy."

Tags:croesus, agamemnon, persia

Abstract
The paper discusses the presence of an elitist democratic power base in both Greek and Roman democracies that were essentially based on discriminatory and exclusionary practices. The paper then argues that our modern representative democratic processes, while based on universal electoral suffrage, have not removed such faults from the process. The paper explains how social and economic inequality and injustice means that those less privileged cannot attain similar levels of advancement. The paper therefore shows how the continuing power of elites within the democratic process is largely a consequence of inequality at the social level.

From the Paper
"Winston Churchill once confidently proclaimed, "Democracy is the worst form of government except for all the others that have been tried" (Ponting, 1994, P.143). He may well have been correct, however there can be little doubt that as we progress through the preliminary years of the twenty first century; democracy is at its zenith. There are those who argue that both China's brand of communism and Islamic fundamentalism of the Khomeini variety present a realistic and potent challenge to the democratic ethic. However, even if we take into consideration the limited appeal such alternatives may have in certain regions of the globe, democracy still stands aloft as the most desirable form of political organisation available at the moment. Thus, Churchill's utterance, whilst deliberately humorous is also decidedly accurate."

Tags:inequality, electorate, exclusion

Abstract
In this essay the character of women and their role in Athenian society at the time of Aristophanes is examined. In the ancient world the idea of women running the city was totally ludicrous and people would laugh at the idea. The paper shows that Aristophanes wrote this play to make people laugh and so not much, if any, of the information in the play can be relied upon to give an accurate picture of how women were treated in Athenian society. Aristophanes gave them a very important position but in reality they were treated as second class citizens.

From the Paper
"The general idea of the women of Athens running the city was totally preposterous and would not even be considered as a viable option to solve the city's problems. This was because women held such a low position in Greek society. They had no legal status at all and could not even represent themselves in court if they wanted to."

Tags:ancient, athens, playwrights

Abstract
An analysis of Rome's success in unifying Italy during the 3rd and 4th centuries BC covering their relationships with the Latin league and surrounding tribes, wars with the Samnites and Phyrrus of Epirus and her use of treaties and colonies.

From the Paper
"The history of early Rome and its relations with, and eventual dominance of, the rest of Italy are shrouded in mystery. This is due to the lack of and contradictory nature of the primary sources and the unreliability of later writings. Thus we can see that the Greek Diodorus (writing in the first century A.D.) used a source that made no mention of the first Samnite War (343-341) of traditional Roman history. Roman compilers of their own history often heavily edited it with the benefit of hindsight to explain or excuse later events and to play down episodes that mighty Rome would rather forget. Livy, for example, has a Samnite envoy challenge the Romans to battle in 327 in order to decide which of the two peoples would rule Italy (Livy 8.23.10). In reality, this second Samnite war resulted from a minor border dispute between two central Italian states and the significance of any victory could not have been appreciated at the time. Rome's unifying of Italy arguably started with its relations with and manipulation of the Latin League from the fifth century onward. It was this league, rather than Rome herself, that was responsible for the first real consolidation of territorial gains."

Tags:alliances, citizenship, colonies, epirus, etruscans, gauls, latin, league, legions, phyrrus, samnites, tactics, tarentines, treaties, veneti

Abstract
Salvation as a doctrine within Christianity is of immense importance and Irenaeus devoted a great deal of his life to fighting for what he considered to be the only acceptable orthodox perspective. The paper shows that much of his theology remains important to this day and the famous theodicy that bears his name is often invoked as a defense to the problem of evil. This essay describes many of his beliefs and outlines what he considered to be the most important facets of the Christian and Man's journey to salvation.

From the Paper
"The value of the theology of Irenaeus is linked, at least in part, with the fact that he is thoroughly representative of the "classic model" of salvation and was enormously important in fixing the lines on which Christian thought was to move for a great deal of time after his life. Part of this strength stems from the fact that Irenaeus does not make use of the more philosophical approach of groups like the Apologists or the Alexandrians but devoted himself to the more simple exposition of the central ideas of Christianity itself. He is also, however, the first Christian writer to provide a clear and comprehensive doctrine of redemption and the atonement. The smaller works of the apostolic fathers deal with this theme in a relatively incidental way and the same may be said of the Apologists, although this is not to say that the subject was in some sense secondary to them. With Irenaeus, however, the idea of redemption and salvation occurs frequently in his writings and are both centered around clear and unmistakable ideas and present a very strong basis which proceeding generations followed."

Tags:marcion, patristics, theodicy, valentinius

Abstract
This paper discusses the causes of the Peloponnesian War, and the nature in which it took place. It discusses Thucydides' view that the underlying reason for the war was Spartan fear of Athens, as well as the more immediate factors. Finally, it examines how the structure of the Athenian and Spartan states gave the war its longevity, which only ended when an external power, Persia, became involved.

From the Paper
"By 460 Athens, primarily through her navy, had risen to the status of a great power. Her dominance of the Delian League had led to an empire; this generated enough wealth to rebuild her home city which had been destroyed by the Persians in 479. Sparta, by contrast, had been reduced in status; previously the major power in Greece, her lack of a navy had led to Athens' leadership of the Delian League, and now erupted a great rivalry between the two powers. However, there were many restrictions upon both sides on the terms at which they could go to war, and these restrictions, alongside many other factors, would influence the indecisive and prolonged nature of their conflicts over the next half a century. The main source for this period is Thucydides; his reliability, although questioned, is far superior to other contemporary sources, and the huge amount of critical analysis done on his history is a compliment rather than a criticism of his work, as by providing such a detailed and political account he is alone in allowing such debate. Thus, he shapes our analysis of the outbreak of war. For example, what he calls the Peloponnesian War is the period from 431-404, which excludes the previous thirty years of conflict, a period which he treats with lesser detail. As to the outbreak of war, he gives a long account of the events leading up to the war of 431, and to an extent he implies which ones were of greater consequence. However, he qualifies this: 'the real reason for the war is, in my opinion, most likely to be disguised by such an argument. What made war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this caused in Sparta' ."

Tags:athens, empire, greece, greek, peloponnesian, persia, sparta, thucydides

Abstract
This paper debates whether the Emperor Constantine can be considered a true Christian Emperor, or whether he was a Roman Emperor who adopted aspects of Christianity. In particular, it looks at his political needs and his establishment of the Senate and other institutions at Constantinople. It also examines his supposed conversion and whether it an be considered genuine or not.

From the Paper
"The principal primary sources we have for the life of Constantine are Eusebius' Vita Constantina, the writings of Lactantius, and the various edicts which Constantine himself put forward. These sources should be looked at in the context of Christianity and the tradition of Roman historical writing. Since Christianity was a new development, the roman historical traditions were still being taught to bishops and prominent Christian writers. In this tradition the agenda of the writer was exceptionally important; the writer's opinions affected most strongly what would be written down. Eusebius is no exception. 'I would be ashamed of myself if I did not put together what I can, little though it be and poor, for the one who out of his extraordinary devotion to God honoured us all.' Eusebius describes his ultimate goal of honouring Constantine, and throughout the book he commends Constantine highly as a Christian Emperor. "

Tags:bridge, eusebius, milvian, nicaea, paganism, senate

Abstract
This essay argues that at the beginning of the Social War, the Italian states only sought citizenship; it was Rome's stubbornness to grant citizenship which encouraged the Italian states to increase their aims and seek complete independence. It explores the contrasting viewpoints of the two main sources of the time, Appian and Posidonius.

From the Paper
"The outbreak of war between Rome and her Italian allies was due to a build-up of tensions caused by Rome's refusal to treat the Italian states as her equals. Willing allies at the end of the third century, a gradual cultural assimilation of the Roman and Italian peoples suggested that a social and political assimilation would follow. The building of roads, the creation of Roman colonies and joint military service had seen cultural distinctions between the Italians and Romans decrease. Indeed, Latin had become a universal language in Italy to such an extent that a large proportion of Latin poets were of Italian heritage. Eventually, this assimilation was recognized by Rome, to the extent that in the early second century Arpinum, Formiae, Fundi and other cities received promotion from the status of half-citizenship to full. However, this process was not continued, and many Italians began to resent the refusal of Rome to treat them as equal citizens. The list of grievances was long, and grew over time. Italians had to provide troops for the Roman army, yet received an unequal proportion of the war-booty, even though in the second century Rome's allies would provide more than half of her troops. Italian armies were further restricted from plundering foreign lands themselves. Italians were part governed by a democratic state, yet could not partake in the democratic process, as suffrage was restricted to those with full-citizenship. Romans, unlike her allies, could appeal arbitrary justice. Italians who had settled in Rome and had acquired citizenship caused a major drop in population in many Latin cities, yet they still had to provide the same number of troops for the army. In 187 and 177 Rome enforced the repatriation of thousands of Italians to solve this problem; this served to antagonize many Italians further, as their rights as citizens were suddenly revoked. The Italian aristocracy were aggrieved as their powers over their own people were restricted, and subjugated to the rule of Rome. Over a period of time, these grievances would formulate into a general appeal for the granting of full-citizenship to Rome's Italian allies."

Tags:drusus, empire, flaccus, gaius, gracchus, King, Mithridates, of, Pontus

Abstract
The paper explains why made Alexander the Great was one of the finest military commanders in history. The composition and organization of the army are analyzed and his tactics used in his four great battles.

From the Paper
"Alexander the Great ascended to the throne at a time when the Macedonian empire was at a crossroads, yet within ten years of coming to power in 336BC Alexander was within striking distance of the Indus valley after destroying the greatest empire the world had ever seen up to that point. The noted military tactician and historian J.F.C Fuller says of Alexander's succession to the throne, "When Philip was assassinated Alexander was barely twenty years of age and as yet so inexperienced and untried that it seemed to all Greece that the Macedonian empire was about to dissolve." The description of Alexander by Arrian as "always masterly" says a lot of his capability as a general, but Alexander had inherited numerous advantages from Philip II. This essay will seek to demonstrate whether or not Alexander was a tactical genius or not, on and off the battlefield. I will now go on to discuss the advantages that Alexander had inherited from Philip II."

Tags:alexander, great, ii, macedonia, military, philip, tactics, war, 336BC, greece, philip, II, persia

Abstract
This essay compares the works of Herodotus and Thucydides, and the way in which Herodotus influenced Thucydides' own views on the writing of history. It examines differences in their language, the importance attributed to the supernatural, their views on historical causation and their use of sources.

From the Paper
"Herodotus' Histories earned him the title of "The Father of History", the first person ever to investigate historical causation without paying too much homage to divine influence. Roughly twenty-five years later, Thucydides' The Peloponnesian War continued Herodotus' history, taking up from the moment Histories ends."

Tags:athens, greece, greek, histories, peloponnesian