Abstract
The paper shows how Napoleon failed to match Britain's economic policies of a sound currency, direct taxation of the rich, naval power and a consolidated national bank. It shows that the army drained the French economy, so taxes rose and hyperinflation took place. This led to mass unemployment and high bread prices after the 1811 harvest. As confidence waned, the bourgeoisie deserted Napoleon, and the country was in disarray. Napoleon was a military genius who was far ahead of his counterparts in the early 1800's. However, his opponents modernized their military strategies and brought themselves up to his level. The paper shows that Napoleon allowed the French economy to stagnate while being shored up by short term finances stemming from military victories. Ultimately, this greatly contributed to the collapse of the Empire and Napoleon's eventual defeat.

From the Paper
"Financial issues played a major part in the conflicts and developments of the 18th and 19th centuries. Sound fiscal policy was the key to whether a nation could feed its people and supply its armed forces. Finance, and tax in particular, had been significant in bringing down the ancient regime in France. J.R Stephenson described Chartism as "a knife and fork question, a bread and cheese question" and there is certainly much truth in the assumption that radical feelings and societal insecurity are at their greatest during times of economic depression. Therefore a sound economy was paramount for a prosperous and harmonious nation."

Tags:continental, directory, pitt, Dundas

Abstract
This paper looks at the reasons behind the huge development of medieval Italian cities in relation to the rest of Europe. These factors include: Their superior organization, military history, geographical advantages in terms of trade and commerce and the unique form of government dividing the country into city states.

From the Paper
"Medieval times saw an expansion in city life all across Europe, but nowhere more so than in Italy. As early as the tenth century, Italian towns, though still inferior to those in the East, had become far larger than those in other Catholic European countries. From 1100-1250, the population of many Italian cities grew considerably, rising from around 5,000-6,000 people to between 30,000-40,000. This was because of a number of factors, most notably the commercial revolution and explosion of trade, which Italy was in a unique position to exploit, due, among other things, to her history and geographical location."

Tags:commerce, florence, italy, trade, venice

Abstract
This paper examines how during his reign, the medieval emperor Charlemagne came to dominate Europe and create an empire of a scale not seen since classical times. It looks at how he created a renaissance of learning, the arts and culture in Europe. It analyzes how the empire was achieved through a number of important military victories and how after the death of Charlemagne it became quickly divided and fragmented. It puts forward the argument that his educational and cultural achievements were greater and more durable than his military and political achievements even though his educational and cultural achievements were often fundamentally dependent on or instrumental in his military and political coups.

From the Paper
"Charlemagne instilled a great deal of importance in historical texts. He realized the importance of annals and other historical texts in creating a sense of history and of collective national identity. It was very important to build up texts of the history of the Carolingians as part of the empire's pursuit of legitimacy. An example of an historical text which had a clear political impact and related strongly to Charlemagne's military achievements was Paul the Deacon's "Hisotira Langobardorum". This was a history of Lombardy. According to Mckitterick this history was "an active contribution to the shaping of Frankish and Lombard relations." This work actively portrayed the Carolingians as natural heirs to Lombardy."

Tags:arts, christendom, conquest, emperor, king, medieval

Abstract
The Black Death has long been recognized as not only a terrible human tragedy but also an influential factor in the economic and social changes that occurred in medieval Europe. It looks at how the Black Death acted as a catalyst for the social and economic changes, such as the end of feudalism, increasing urbanization and the end of blind support for the Church.

From the Paper
"The aspects that had so improved the lives of the peasants was potentially economically crippling for landowners. Not only did the nobles have to pay much higher wages but their agricultural produce commanded a much lower price at market and between 1347 and 1353 aristocratic incomes fell by 20% . Attempts were made to prevent this, in France for example the 1349 Statue of Labor attempted to limit wages to pre-1348 levels but with little success. The smaller landowners and those slow to react to the changing environment were the main losers, those that were able and prepared to diversify (into animal rearing for example, which was becoming increasingly profitable due to the newly acquired higher spending power of the peasants) were not so economically misfortunate."

Tags:church, urbanisation, feudalism

Abstract
The essay deals with the different roles of women in early medieval Europe and how they were affected by the spread of Christianity. Wives and the effect of new, Christianity inspired, marriage laws are discussed as well as the changing status of unmarried women, widows and female serfs. Female missionaries, nuns and saints all boosted the status of women. The role of Queens before and after the adoption of Christianity is covered, dealing with the positive and negative changes that took place. The essay concludes that overall Christianity had a positive effect on the role and status of women.500-1000A.D.

From the Paper
"The role and status of women in Western Europe between ca.500 and ca.1000 did change due to Christianity. However whether the female role and status in society was diminished or improved depends on a number of factors. Primarily, the type of woman in question must be taken into consideration. Queens, for example, were affected in a different way to female serfs. Secondly, we must also look at the role and status of women before the emergence of Christianity to make a valid judgment of change after ca.500. Thirdly, to a certain extent, the origin of the woman is a factor; Christianity affected different parts of Europe in a manner of different ways."

Tags:convents, dos, early, europe, female, laws, marriage, medieval, missionaries, monasteries, queens, saints, serfs, western, whitby

Abstract
The paper shows that the causes of the Crimean war all revolved around the decaying Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Question. The Ottoman Empire had grown too large and outstretched; it was getting impossible to control such a vast empire from the center and the Empire consisted of many different ethnic and religious people. The paper discusses each of the great powers of the time - Russian, Britain, France, Austria and Sardinia - and shows how each one in turn was unable to prevent the war.

From the Paper
"As Turkey's direct neighbor, Russia had a mixture of territorial, strategic, economic and religious reasons for their part in starting the Crimean War. Ever since the time of Peter the Great, Russia had dreamed of getting control of the Black Sea and gaining access to a warm water port in the Mediterranean. If Russia could gain access to the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Ottoman territory then it would vastly improve its economic, trade and shipping economies. If this were to happen Russia would also dominate the Near East making it the most dominant Great Power. The Russian Orthodox Church also laid claim to the Holy Lands, which would be vitally important in political and strategic terms to get a foothold in this area."

Tags:armies, europe, florence, history, nightingale, ottoman, prussia

Abstract
Various thinkers, writers and philosophers have been associated with the Enlightenment, each expounding different theories on how the world works and how society could be improved, but all having a few core beliefs in common. This essay argues that while optimism and confidence were key factors to driving the enlightenment forward, it was reason and rationality that were actually the main concepts of the Enlightenment.

From the Paper
"The Enlightenment was a period in European history to which it is difficult to assign dates to. It is generally agreed however, that the 17th and 18th Centuries was when this kind of thinking was most prolific. It was a time when people began to change the way they thought, and the way they viewed the world. They adopted new values and beliefs in place of the old ones dictated by the Church and tradition. They believed that man was essentially a rational being, and that by using reason and logic to examine the world, the natural order could be discovered and understood, and used to make the world a better place. "It's watchwords were: rationality not tradition, happiness in this life, not salvation in the next." Thus confidence and optimism were important aspects in the progression of this movement. However, to what extent they could be considered key concepts of the Enlightenment, is disputable."

Tags:john, locke, voltaire, Thomas, Hobbes

Abstract
The paper explains why made Alexander the Great was one of the finest military commanders in history. The composition and organization of the army are analyzed and his tactics used in his four great battles.

From the Paper
"Alexander the Great ascended to the throne at a time when the Macedonian empire was at a crossroads, yet within ten years of coming to power in 336BC Alexander was within striking distance of the Indus valley after destroying the greatest empire the world had ever seen up to that point. The noted military tactician and historian J.F.C Fuller says of Alexander's succession to the throne, "When Philip was assassinated Alexander was barely twenty years of age and as yet so inexperienced and untried that it seemed to all Greece that the Macedonian empire was about to dissolve." The description of Alexander by Arrian as "always masterly" says a lot of his capability as a general, but Alexander had inherited numerous advantages from Philip II. This essay will seek to demonstrate whether or not Alexander was a tactical genius or not, on and off the battlefield. I will now go on to discuss the advantages that Alexander had inherited from Philip II."

Tags:alexander, great, ii, macedonia, military, philip, tactics, war, 336BC, greece, philip, II, persia

Abstract
This paper looks at the genuine religious motivations and secular concerns, with recourse to the following:
1) Concept of 'clash of faiths' discussed.
2) Networks of clientage facilitating spread of dissent.
3) Individuals expressing religious insincerity.
4) Noble/Artisan divide.
5) Weakness of new kings.
6) Zeal in lower orders.
7) Rites of violence.
8) Calvinism as a binding force and intensifier.

From the Paper
"Any attempt to ascertain the 'role' of religion in the French Wars requires strict definitions in order to succeed, especially given the complexities attached to any examination of the motivations prevalent in the conversions which occurred in France. If one is to define religion as a particular system of faith and worship, then its fundamental role in initiating, aggravating and motivating the civil war is clear - one only need acknowledge the number of converts which allied themselves to Calvinism to appreciate this. Yet this neglects the questions invariably thrown up by the study of dissent during the wars; namely the extent to which converts were genuinely motivated by religious concerns. This entails an appreciation of the array of non-religious concerns which were vital ingredients in the conflicts, and demands for there to be constructed a second definition which might enable progress to be made along this route. If, therefore, one defines religion as something suggestive of spiritual belief and conviction, its fundamental role is less clear, for the traditional conclusions reached by historians, whilst never ruling out the importance of true religiosity, have tended to place a great deal of emphasis upon the political, economic and social concerns of the participants of the French Wars."

Tags:calvinism, catherine, de, french, henry, ii, medici, religion, wars

Abstract
This paper discusses romanticism, a term given to a European wide movement in the arts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in revolt against the neo-classicism of the previous centuries. It focuses on the theme of nature, one of four main themes in romanticism and how nature is associated with ideas about psychology, pleasure and health, morality and the divine. It reviews William Wordsworth's lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey, with an emphasis on how the poet describes nature and uses it to express deeper feelings and meaning.

From the Paper
"In the poem, Wordsworth is writing of an ordinary event that he thought worthy of recording and the experience he is describing is something everyone can relate to, not just a privileged few. This poem is seen as being Wordsworth's first great statement of his principle idea that the memory of interaction with nature in childhood, works on the mind even in adulthood when access to that interaction is lost. Wordsworth strongly believed that childhood experiences affected the adult mind and in this poem he almost mourns the loss of his youth and realizes that as adults we lose some of the innocent perceptions of childhood. He also realizes that we make up for that loss by gaining an increased maturity of mind, and the ability to see a greater importance of nature and its relationship with humanity."

Tags:imagination, emotion, neoclassicism