Abstract
This essay examines a marine ecosystem and a forest ecosystem and identifies and ranks the three most important ecosystem services that are provided by these two systems, describing the nature of the relationship between two of the ecosystem services and the well being of humans. Furthermore, the essay discusses the most significant direct and indirect drivers of degradation within the two systems and discuss the scenarios that would best protect them as well as the scenarios that are most likely to happen.

Tags:ecosystems, degradation, study

Abstract
This paper takes a critical look at the book "Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe", by Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee. It discusses their theories of the beginning of life on Earth and additional theories to life on other planets. It challenges their research and data and offers other explanations and theories.

From the Paper
"Was the occurrence of complex life on the planet Earth an isolated event or simply the next logical step in evolution? Ward and Brownlee seem to believe complex life is unique to our home world or at least extremely scarce in the Universe.1 In addition to the factors in their Rare Earth equation, mentioned in their book are some specific factors peculiar to Earth that may have affected the development of complex life. Beginning with the planet Mars, W&B argue that the fossil record shows that the cooling Earth developed bacterial life as soon as conditions permitted. They suggest that this may be because the bacteria first developed on Mars, which cooled earlier, and that perhaps Earth was then seeded with these bacteria carried by meteorites reaching our planet after having been ejected from Mars by asteroid impacts. The low gravity of Mars makes this more likely, and it is estimated that ten percent of meteors ejected from Mars may impact Earth. A system lacking a Mars-like planetary companion might have been slower to develop bacterial life."

Tags:complex, earth, life, Mars, geology, bacteria, plants, galaxy, scientific, molecule, DNA

Abstract
This paper provides a brief overview of global warming and its causes, focusing on the consequences of global warming on the world's ocean systems. It basically describes the process of global warming, the forecasted effects by scientists and environmentalists and finally gives examples of what one can do to assist in reversing this phenomena.

From the Paper
"In one of his televised debates with Vice President Al Gore, George W. Bush said that scientists do not yet know the cause of global warming. This must have been a surprise indeed to all of those scientists in the world who have understood both the fact that our earth is getting hotter and the mechanism underlying this global climate shift for a number of years. This paper provides a brief overview of global warming and its causes, focusing on the consequences of global warming on the world's ocean systems."

Tags:earth, temperature, gas, filture, acceleration, government, ecology, disaster, oxygen

Abstract
This paper introduces and discusses the effect on business of El Nino, the name Peruvian fishermen gave the warm currents that would show up every few years just before Christmas. It shows how each occurrence of the phenomena causes enormous damage in personal and business loss and causes flooding, property damage, crop damage and warming in some areas of the country.
Outline
Introduction
Thesis statement and definition of El Nino
Positive affects of El Nino
Agriculture
Decreased energy costs
Less snow removal, more jobs
Not as bad as previous El Nino
Negative affects of El Nino
NOAA results
Less heating costs in Northeast
Damage to crops
Higher prices
Affects to construction
Drought in Hawaii
Ski resorts lose income
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The weather phenomenon known as El Nino can both adversely and positively affect the business of a particular area. "In the 1982-83 El Nino, floods did $1.2 billion worth of damage, and the following year's drought cost farmers $10 billion, but consumers in the Northeast saved a tidy $2.5 billion on heating bills" (Armstrong and Veomett 33). Since this is a reoccurring activity, business people should learn from prior events, and protect themselves from damage, destruction, and lost income as best they can. There are insurance policies available for some businesses, and they may be worth the cost in the worst-case scenario."

Tags:warm, currents, farmers, crops, floods, damage

Abstract
This paper discusses some of the strange disappearances that have taken place in the geographic area known as the Bermuda Triangle and explores the different theories that have been asserted to explain these disappearances.

From the Paper
"A variety of grim nicknames have been used to describe this area of the Atlantic Ocean over the past forty years, such as: the Devil's Triangle, the Hoodoo Sea and the Limbo of the Lost. The most commonly used name, the Bermuda Triangle, was coined by researcher and author Vincent Gaddis in 1964 in his article, "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle"."

Tags:florida, puerto, rico, atlantic, compass, flight, nineteen, hutchinson, effect, human, error

Abstract
This paper examines the topic of ocean tides, the periodic rise and fall of the ocean waters due to the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the surface of the earth. It looks at what causes tides, what are high and low tides, the different types of tides, the phenomenon of tidal currents and waves, the effect of tides on the coastlines and on fishing and how tides can be harnessed for energy. It also discusses other areas in which knowledge of tidal data can prove useful.

Outline
What Causes Tides?
High and Low Tides
Lunar and Solar Tides
Tidal Period
Spring and Neap Tides
Diurnal, Semi-Diurnal and Mixed Tides
Effect of Tides on Coastlines
Effect of Tides on Fishing
Tides in Gulf of Mexico and the Texas Gulf Coast Regions
Tidal Energy
Other Applications

From the Paper
"The gravitational force of the earth at its surface acts in an inward direction towards its center. This force keeps the ocean (and other) waters confined to the surface. At the same time, the gravitational force of the moon and the sun exert an outward pull on the surface of the earth. Since the earth solid surface is a rigid body, it remains relatively unaffected by this "pull." However, the ocean waters, being liquid and less rigid, are physically pulled outwards towards the moon and the sun by their gravitational force. This outward pull is not uniform over the earth's surface since the gravitational force of the moon (or the sun) acts on the side of the earth facing it. Hence "high tide" is produced in the ocean waters by the "heaping" action resulting from the horizontal flow of water towards regions of the earth facing the moon or the sun."

Tags:coastline, energy, water, solar, lunar

Abstract
This paper discusses the different kinds of coral reefs that exist. The author explains the various ways that coral reefs are formed, along with the factors that contribute to the growth of coral reefs. In addition, the author also analyzes the various theories centering around the formation of coral reefs.

From the Paper
"There are three different types of reefs. These are the fringing reef, the barrier reef, and the atoll. The fringing reef is a coral reef that attaches to the margins of islands and continents. It consists of several types of corals without any predominant type. It is surrounded by a few corals that are separated from the island or continent by areas of sand. The fringing reef forms an area along the shore and along the margins of the island where colonies of coral can grow. These reefs begin to grow below the low water mark and extend seaward. The fringing reef is always attached to the margin of the island or continent, and the edge lying sea?ward is not separated from the main land by a lagoon."

Tags:atoll, barrier, control, criticism, daly, darwin, fringing, glacial, growth, ocean, oceanography, problems, reginald, science, subsidence, sunlight, theories, theory, weaknesses

Abstract
An examination of Milankovitch's theory which links the climate to seasonal and latitudinal variations in the solar energy received by the Earth. Through this theory we are given a better understanding of this time period. Criticism of the theory is also discussed and problems analyzed.

From the Paper
"An ice age is a cool period in Earth history, where much of the Earth s land surface is covered by ice. What is most relevant here is that an ice age is defined by the lower temperatures, with the ice a symptom of this. An ice age then, can be defined as a period when climatic changes produce lower temperatures, which in turn cause the Earth to be covered by large sheets of ice."

Tags:climate, season, earth, cycle, temperature, ocean, science, circulation

Abstract
This paper introduces, discusses and analyzes the problem of ocean pollution, and how it is affecting marine life. It also looks at what is being done to control pollution in the United States and around the world. The paper shows that, as the world become more industrialized, the pollution in the ocean is becoming more of a problem.

From the Paper
"There are numerous pollutants contaminating the world's oceans they have been building up for hundreds of years, and they are both man-made and natural, although man-made pollutants are much more common than natural pollutants. Over 900,000 gallons of oil spills into the oceans every year, either from leaking tankers, oil spills, or leaks from oil dredging machinery. "In 1997, the 22 oil spills reported worldwide involved a total of 15 million gallons (57 million liters) of oil" ("Water Pollution")."

Tags:oil, tanker, industrialization, spill, marine, fishing

Abstract
This paper purports to investigate our greater understanding of the unified theory of plate tectonics and seafloor spreading. The structure of the earth and the traditional theory of continental drift is examined, followed by a look at the more unified theory of plate tectonics. The global ramifications of this theory is investigated by examining the damaging tectonic activity caused by seafloor spreading, specifically earthquakes as well as the hazards these earthquakes in turn generate, namely tsunamis. Case studies are provided to illustrate the damaging nature of these natural forces. Finally the paper examines whether these hazards can be predicted or prepared for given our greater understanding of their causes.

From the Paper
"The Earth is a layered planet consisting of the crust, mantel and core as illustrated in Figure 1 below. Due to the intense heat during the formation of the planet, Earth was mostly molten. The more dense materials sank to the centre forming the core while the lighter materials floated to the surface and gradually formed a rigid layer called the lithosphere (Byatt 2001:18). The upper part of this lithosphere is called the crust, a layer about 80km to 40km thick (Strahler & Strahler 1989:254). The lithosphere also includes the upper part of the mantle called the asthenosphere, which is highly heated to a state that is semi plastic. The rigid, brittle lithosphere, which is broken into large fragments called lithospheric plates, has the capability of moving over the soft, plastic asthenosphere."

Tags:drift, earthquakes, floor, hazards, lithosphere, plate, sea, spreading, tectonic, tectonics, tsunamis