Abstract
This paper discusses the idea of what constitutes being a man and how it changed between the sixteenth and the nineteenth century. The author explains how different sorts of society saw manhood change to a greater or lesser extent, and how this was further affected by biological discoveries about the two sexes, the changing attitudes towards women and cross dressing, and the increase of homophobic behavior. The author concludes that during this period gender differences were clarified and as a result the nature of manhood itself was significantly altered.

From the Paper
"Nevertheless it can be determined from a variety of sources and other evidence that manhood changed significantly over this period. To determine this we have only to examine the character of the seventeenth century man and compare this to the eighteenth century man. Harvey defines the difference simplistically as a 'shift from seventeenth-century man of honour to eighteenth-century man of refinement.' The man of the seventeenth century was viewed to have humours of a hot and dry nature and to be 'naturally more rational, strong and intellectual than women' this led men to be viewed as sexually passive in comparison to women and as a result men were very concerned about the possibility of being 'cuckolded', cheated on by their wives. These men were patriarchs, attempting to thoroughly control their household and female sexuality. In contrast men in the eighteenth century had moved further away from the household and relied increasingly on their job and salary for power."

Tags:etiquette, orgasm, violence, aristocracy, status, relationship, civility, politeness, chivalry

Abstract
This essay serves to examine the wage inequalities between men and women in the modern day workforce. It references two specific examples of gender discrimination; Ann Hopkins' suit against Price Waterhouse in 1982 and Muriel Kraszewski's suit against State Farm. The author also explains in detail the ramifications of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which attempts to protect the rights of women who work in the same jobs as men.

From the Paper
"In order to fully gain equal employment and fairness, traditionally male positions must be opened to females. This is the only way to shatter the glass walls and ceilings that are so prevalent in today's society. Many women have fought discrimination and improved their own lives and the lives of countless other women over the span of several generations. The first step in creating equality in the workplace is to inform women of their rights. The next step is for these women to exercise their rights. Women can no longer allow themselves to be excluded from the workforce. Individuals concerned about equality should press for the continuation and strengthening of better paying jobs for women, and this support must not come from women alone. In order for our society to foster this change, we must understand why these changes are necessary. Society requires that men and women work together and this is not likely to change. What must change is the way that we work together. "

Tags:ceiling, discrimination, gender, glass, inequalities, segregation, sex, title, vii, wage

Abstract
This paper discusses causes, including media and peers, and some effects, including sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unwanted pregnancy. It explains that teenagers who practice unsafe sex are playing with a time bomb that could go off at any time. It concludes that, with the advent of easily accessible birth control and condoms, there are no more excuses for practicing unsafe sex, which can cause an unwanted pregnancy or even death by disease.

From the Paper
"Having unsafe sex with a partner is not only brainless; it can be deadly. There are many reasons teens choose to have unsafe sex, from peer pressure, to the passion of the moment, to the media, which often portrays sex as an act with no negative results. For example, sex in film and television rarely ends up in the character dieing a lingering death from AIDS, or giving birth to an unwanted baby, but in real life, these are just some of the effects that can occur quite easily from just one unprotected sex act (Arons 1093). Many young women find it difficult to visit a birth control clinic, even though they may be readily accessible in their area."

Tags:pregnancy, STD, sexually, transmitted, disease, birth, control, condom

Abstract
This paper offers a brief discussion about the rights of gays and lesbians to be allowed to marry in a legal and official manner. It mentions some previous civil suit court hearings in which this matter was raised and also social and ethical ramifications of this debate.

From the Paper
"An issue much argued in recent years is whether or not homosexuals should be allowed to marry one another. Arguments have been offered on both sides, with those in the gay community arguing why they should be allowed to marry, and with opposing forces arguing why they should not. One reason offered by gays is fairness, notably that they want access to the various social and economic benefits currently denied to gay people because they cannot marry. Society for the most part has so far deemed marriage to mean more than this and to have at least the possibility of procreating children is used as an argument to deny gays the right to marry one another. Only Hawaii has taken a contrary position, while a few other states have offered a form of rights to benefits for couples without including marriage."

Tags:gay, lesbian, wedding, couple

Abstract
This paper provides a study into the different areas of discrimination law affecting inequality amongst women. It considers whether equality really exists and what still needs to be done to ensure women are more accurately represented in today's society.

From the Paper
"Anti-discrimination legislation has been enacted in an attempt to eradicate the prevalent inequalities within the world of work. The law has developed two separate and distinct routes with respect to equality. One route expounds the equal treatment of men and women, a concept key to the liberal feminists; and the other is a specific rights based route which relates directly to pregnancy cases, which will be discussed further below. This latter is what the maternal feminists of the early nineteenth century would have chosen; that the law should accommodate the differences between men and women, with particular reference to women as mothers. The claim is that where women deviate from the male norm, the law should acknowledge this."

Tags:feminism, legislation, gender

Abstract
This paper looks specifically at comparisons between the psychological effects of bias crimes and non-bias crimes, the role of the media, prevention and the role of the justice system using two specific case studies. It examines two high-profile murder cases-those of Matthew Shepard in 1998 and Danny Overstreet in 2000.

From the Paper
"In a study comparing the psychological distress suffered by victims of hate crimes and of unbiased crimes, evidence was found to the effect that the former were more likely to suffer greater psychological distress than the latter (Herek, Gillis and Cogan, 1999). Approximately two-thousand subjects from Sacramento, California, participated in the research and the sample included equal numbers of men and women. After a period of five years, victims of hate crimes reported greater levels of anxiety, anger towards the attacker, depression, and traumatic stress. They were also more likely to "regard the world as unsafe" (p. 949)."

Tags:crimes, criminology, forensics, victimology, matthew, shephard, danny, overstreet

Abstract
This paper uses Simone Beauvoir's pioneering claim 'one is not born a woman, but, rather becomes one? as a beginning point in critically examining different theories which propose how one becomes a woman, not necessarily due to her biology. It addresses psychoanalysis, social constructionism and poststructuralism and takes Freud and Chodorow as exemplars of psychoanalysis, Oakley as an exemplar of the social constructionism perspective and Butler as an exemplar of the poststructuralist position. It aims to critically engage with the theories of these writers and attempts to establish the implications that each one carries towards our understanding of gender inequalities.

From the Paper
"Beauvior's pioneering work became central to all subsequent theories on gender. A number of writers developed theories, which were based on the same tenants as Beauvior's ideas. The theories in question can be divided into the three broad frameworks of psychoanalysis, social constructionism and poststructuralism. Examining the work of every writer associated with these positions goes well beyond the scope of this work. Hence this work shall be selective by taking Freud and Chodorow as exemplars of psychoanalysis, Oakley as an exemplar of social constructionism and taking Butler as an exemplar of the poststructuralist position. This work shall aim to critically engage with the theories of these writers and attempt to establish the implications that each one carries towards our understanding of gender inequalities."

Tags:feminism, freud, oakely, simone, beauvior, chodorow

Abstract
This work critically examines contemporary feminist debates on new technology. It presents the arguments of feminists who believe that new technology will liberate women and the arguments of feminists who believe in the antithesis of this , that new technology is oppressive to women. It looks at how the arguments of the latter stem from the belief that technology is developed in a society, which is inherently patriarchal. It includes topics such as an introduction new technology, women and paid work, women and housework technology and women and unwanted pregnancy.

From the Paper
"One problem with the approach of liberal feminists is they fail to address difference in women. Women do not constitute one homogenous group who have the same choices available to them. For example Hamner (1985: 95) notes that the Warnock Report associated with the government looked for ways of controlling access to certain reproductive technologies. It recommended that artificial insemination should be made available only to heterosexual couples in stable relationship, not to single women or lesbians. Thus women's choices are in reality highly dependent on different factors such as their age, sexuality, and race. Moreover Firestone's account is arguably a limited one as she attributes women's oppression solely to their reproduction and biology therefore ectogenesis would liberate women. In reality woman's oppression is a result of multiple factors and removing the reproductive functions of women would not mean that they would stop being the subordinate group in society, it may take more than this to overthrow patriarchy which is deeply embedded."

Tags:cyborgs, housework, liberation, oppression, patriarchy, pregnancy

Abstract
Although movements in women's activism in the United States have been mounted by members of all racial backgrounds, issues of race have consistently pervaded such campaigns, both internally and externally. This paper looks at internal racism in the women's suffrage movement from turn of the century America and how racism affected, damaged and aided the struggle for the vote.

From the Paper
"Progress in women's suffrage began to be made when Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, both member of the Society of Friends, journeyed to London. There they acted as delegates in the World Anti-Slavery Convention, but were refused permission to speak based on their gender. Although they returned outraged, nevertheless a similar disenfranchisement occurred at the first convention on women's rights. Held at Seneca Falls in 1848, the meeting saw a noticeable absence of black women-none attended. Although black men had been invited (Frederick Douglass was a speaker), black women were discouraged from participating."

Tags:feminism, feminist, vote

Abstract
This paper endeavours to examine the newly enacted Gender Recognition Act 2004 and the reasoning behind Parliament's hurried reaction to a small body of case-law, whose terms of reference concentrate on the issue of obviating transsexual discrimination and promoting pluralism. It probes the doctrine of legal plurality and considers whether it promotes the campaign of transgender equality or if the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is simply an advocate for such an ideal. In order for this hypothesis to be discussed in significant depth, it also explores various academic conferences and looks at basic provisions of the Gender Recognition Act.
Outline
Introduction
Transsexualism and the European Convention on Human Rights
The Introduction of the Gender Recognition Act 2004
The Doctrine of Legal Pluralism and its Influences
Conclusion

From the Paper
"There is much evidence which suggests that the Gender Recognition Act 2004 was introduced as a direct result of Goodwin and by recommendation of Bellinger. Despite the pressures that Parliament was faced with, the Minister for Constitutional Affairs has openly recognised that the Act aims to celebrate the allocation of rights that transsexuals are to enjoy in a civilised and educated society. The logic behind the implementation of the Gender Recognition Act is possibly a combination of pluralistic values and an attempt to make domestic law compatible with the ECHR. Both of these ideas will be discussed in subsequent sections."

Tags:gay, human, law, legal, pluralism, rights, sexual, transgender