Abstract
A detailed critical analysis of "Zaynab" and the social and political situation of Egypt at the time of its publication. This study draws on the criticism of Alle, Hafez and Jad to explore the literary merits of Haykal's text. The paper answers the question: Does a critical analysis of Haykal's Zaynab justify critics' assertion that it was "the first real Arabic novel?" This study is not intended as an historical overview of the literature available to readers of Arabic in the early decades of the twentieth century.

From the Paper
"Zaynab has often been referred to as the "first real Arabic novel", a title which rarely seems to be called into question. Allen suggests, however, that it is more useful to see Zaynab as a stage in a continuing process of literary evolution, and it is therefore of interest to see how the text stands up to critical analysis of its quality as a novel in general rather than the "first" Arabic novel in particular. The quality of Haykal's writing cannot be denied and his ability to elicit his readers' empathy is highly effective. His story is engaging and it has resonance for readers today just as it must have for Haykal's contemporaries. He treats the themes of love, death and unhappy marriages, themes which are timeless in their relevance despite being sited in this instance in a very particular historical and geographical setting."

Tags:arabic, east, egypt, literature, middle

Abstract
This essay analyzes the policies of infitah in the 1970's, as related to Egypt and Iraq. The paper attempts to understand if these policies substantially modified the economic and political realities of the states where the policies were adopted? The paper includes an analysis of the long and short-term effects of economic liberalization of 'infitah' in Egypt and Iraq in the 1970's, drawing particularly on studies by Ayubi, Kienle and Perthes.

From the Paper
"The economic policies of a number of Middle Eastern states during the 1970's were characterized, at least nominally, by the concept of infitah. Broadly, infitah suggests a response by the government to the economic difficulties the state is facing by "opening up" the economy to more foreign investment, nurturing private enterprise and extending the patrimonial state in order to be better placed to afford some degree of social welfare reform. The phenomenon can be seen in varying degrees in many countries across the Middle East during the 1970's and 1980's as nations struggled to come to terms with the increasing importance of global markets and recognized the failure of policies that relied on the substitution of industrialization by imports."

Tags:cold, east, economic, liberalisation, middle, politics, syria, war

Abstract
This paper discusses the problems of ethnocentricity and cultural baggage in anthropology using the huge difference in Mead and Freeman's research on adolescence in Samoa as an example.

From the Paper
"One of the cornerstones of anthropological thinking is the idea that in studying a society it is important not to judge it by our own standards but to try to understand it from its members? cultural viewpoint. By avoiding ethnocentricity we see the irrelevance of comparing or, even worse, ranking societies by how "westernized" they are (for example GNP, cars per capita, literacy rates etc). However, even if we can get past the "we are right, they are wrong" view of other societies, it is impossible to completely put aside our own cultural upbringing and preconceptions. Geertz (1988) states that, however much one tries, it is impossible for an anthropologist's writing to escape the influence of his/her social and educational background. This "cultural baggage" may not be obvious to an audience with a similar background but as the author's own society changes it becomes more obvious. Evans-Pritchard, in his work with the Azande, was one of the first anthropologists to make a deliberate effort to understand the validity of his subjects' beliefs and practices from their cultural viewpoint but to a modern reader his colonial era attitudes and prejudices are clear. Even something as fundamental as language forms part of our cultural baggage."

Tags:adolescence, culture, derek, ethnocentricity, freedom, freeman, growing, margaret, mead, samoa, sexual, society, women

Abstract
This essay is about the novel "Things Fall Apart" by the Nigerian author Chinua Achebe. It contains information about Achebe and his background and looks at where the author got his inspiration for the title of the book. It examines why this is an apt title in terms of summarizing the themes of the novel.

From the Paper
"Chinua Achebe was born on November 16, 1930 in an Igbo village in Eastern Nigeria under British rule. His parents were devout Christians, and his father taught at the missionary school. This meant that Achebe witnessed the effect that the Christian religion had on the Igbo people. Chinua was taught by his parents to disregard his fellow tribe members who practiced the traditional faith, however Chinua was fascinated with their customs and traditions and attended their ceremonies against his parents' will."

Tags:african, center, culture, igbo, periphery, title, tribe

Abstract
An examination of Indian arts with emphasis on the images and symbolism in the Indian notions of art and religion. The author examines the influences of the Western world on Indian expression of art.

From the Paper
"For thousands of years the arts have thrived on the Indian sub-continent, with the advent of western influence and occupation taking place only within the last few hundred years. The impact of western influence upon India is unmistakable, especially in regards to her arts and religion, serving not so much as a contributor, but as a critic. To even begin to comprehend and appreciate the incredible diversity and complexity of Indian arts, we must undergo a paradigm shift of our most basic western beliefs and notions of art and religion. Therefore, an understanding of the historical interpretations of Indian art is essential. Going beyond this, we must construct a rudimentary primer on seeing Indian images, also known as daran, and trying to understand, at least at a basic level, the symbolism involved in such religiously rich imagery."

Tags:art, continent, images, india, sub

Abstract
To understand a present-day culture one must look to its past, its formation and foundation. In the case of modern day Russia, the author contends that the domination and repression imposed by the Mongol Horde forever changed the course of the Slavic people. Specifically, he believes that there was a great impact upon the cultural makeup, the arts and architecture, and the development of science and technology. An examination of Proto-Rus and its evolution is essential in understanding the formation of modern Russia.

From the Paper
"From 862 -1237 AD, the first proto-Russian political entity was founded by Rurik in the vicinity of Novgorod in 862 AD, when the Varangians had controlled many of the trade routes leading from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea by way of lakes and river. All Russian leaders for the next 700 years would descend from Rurik. In 880-882 AD, another Varangian named Oleg assumed rule of Kiev, which quickly became the political center of the territory known as Kievan Rus (Lawrence 1993). The city of Kiev rose in importance in an era known as "the Golden Age of Kiev" until the 13th century, when Kiev's stature as the political center of the Russian Empire declined rapidly owing to variety of factors, such as familial infighting and the Mongol invasion. The lasting achievements of the Kievan Rus era were the Christianization of Russia following the Eastern Orthodox faith and the formulation and acceptance of the Cyrillic alphabet (Ragsdale 1996)."

Tags:khan, russia, russian, slavic

Abstract
This essay looks at purpose of the pre-colonial economy in Latin America and the methods employed by the Spaniards to control the natives and production under colonization. It examines the diverse population the Spaniards found upon arrival, and how the Spaniards simply superimposed themselves upon existing structures. The four main labor systems used by the Spanish are outlined. The exploitation based on the economic systems implemented by the Spaniards is explored.

From the Paper
"The process of colonization within any one country or group of countries was conditioned by the pre-existing historical circumstances and the attractiveness of its resources to the colonizers. In turn, these affected the degree of exploitation and the nature of the developments that took place and consequently the level of marginalization that occurred within the economy and society. The conquest of Latin America was carried out by the Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch and British. But it was Spain who secured the largest, richest and most diverse territory, and did so with great rapidity. Within 70 years of Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean, Spain had overthrown the Aztec and Inca empires and occupied most of middle and western South America."

Tags:indians, slavery, exploit, colonial, Encomienda, Repartimiento

Abstract
This paper discusses 'Things Fall Apart' by the Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. It is informed by a sense of history and how it reflects on the process of colonization. It explores Achebe's motivations behind 'Things Fall Apart' and evaluates the ways in which the novel acts to reclaim Africa's genuine past. It describes the novel's plot and analyzes the use of tragic irony.

From the Paper
"The Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe is one of the most prominent figures in post-colonial literature and he actively seeks to reclaim African heritage. Western colonization of Africa destroyed native religions, languages and forcibly replaced African heritage with the European culture. In this sense, people of post-colonial countries feel they have been denied their true history and seek to rediscover their past. Achebe strongly disagreed with the existing portrayal of his homeland and it is through his novel Things Fall Apart (1958) that Achebe realizes his desire to expose the Western view of African history as false and repossess Nigeria's genuine past."

Tags:Chinua, Achebe, Africa, colonial, colonisation, culture, heritage, history, Nigeria, post

Abstract
This paper is on the Peter Brook production of the "Mahabharata", the Indian epic. The author contends that the process of de-contextualization of characters, plot elements and pieces of narration out of the Mahabharata's original context and into a Western mode of performance, plot construction and interpretation exhibits the latent Orientalism of the Brook production, and represents the profound and perverse commodification of the India classic. The author further explains how it was Brook's perspective and alteration of this epic that reached a broader Western audience.

From the Paper
"As a world defined by over 200 nations, and thousands of cultures, an incredibly rich history and set of traditions exists. The last century has marked a turning point in our planet's history. As never before, the distance and separation of cultures is becoming ever smaller, due to better transportation and communications infrastructures, and a desire to conduct business on a global scale. There is also an interesting and concerning adoption and synthesis of cultural practices and traditions. One could debate rather academically the merits of cultural encounter and interaction, and to say that perhaps with a synthesis of different cultural practices, a new culture is born. That may be, however the focus of this essay is to critically investigate and discuss the adoption or representation of other cultural traditions, without comprehending their meaning or significance. This is demonstrated through the Western commodification of cultures, the notion of Orientalism, and specifically focusing on the Brooks/ Carrire production of the Mahabharata."

Tags:culture, india, indian, movie, performance

Abstract
This paper looks at how Gandhi used non-violence and peaceful protest as a weapon against British Imperial Rule throughout the early twentieth century. The paper looks at key events such as the Quit India protest, the two World Wars and the involvement of Irish nationalists. Gandhi's actions are considered within the global events that shaped Britian's ability to take action against Gandhi: Gandhi was not the only reason the British eventually left India!

From the Paper
"Throughout the ages mankind often instinctively turns to the use of violence to defeat an enemy. Violence is part and parcel of the culture of human beings. And yet one of the greatest freedom struggles in modern history was apparently won through the specific rejection of violence, and the active use of a policy of non-violence. That struggle was between the Indian independence movement and the British colonial administration. At the head of that independence movement was Mahatma Gandhi, a simple Indian who held no office or great wealth, and yet was able to unite a whole subcontinent against the British Empire. Not only that, but he did it in such a peaceful, virtuous way that he made the British question their own morals and eventually forced them out of India. This is the general version that is recorded in history. However, this version of events generally ignores the other forces that influenced the British to withdraw from the Empire in India. Here we will critically examine the view that the use of non-violence was the main reason for the ending of British rule in India, by examining the true organizational nature of non-violent civil disobedience and other events, British and global."

Tags:independence, Mohandas, Mahatma, Hindu, passive, resistance, campaigns, defense, Raja, Viceroy, Lord, Irwin, World, War, II