Abstract
This paper examines how John Mill's utilitarianism is based on the greatest happiness principle - that an action is right (and indeed morally right) in so far as it promotes happiness and wrong in so far as it promotes unhappiness. It looks at how Mill believes that there are different degrees of rightness and wrongness, depending on the amount of happiness or unhappiness generated. It also explores how consequentialism is the view that the value of an action derives entirely from the value of its consequences and that its value cannot be intrinsic or be altered by the kind of character whose action it is. It evaluates whether it follows that Mill's Utilitarianism then must be seen as a form of consequentialism.

From the Paper
"The question of equality is also important. Given the choice between making one person extremely happy and another nine people neither happy nor unhappy or making each of the ten people moderately happy, which is better? According to the utilitarian principle, the better action would be the one that maximises overall happiness, assuming that the application of fairness will have no other effects on utility in general. If the two situations produce the same overall happiness however, utilitarianism does not distinguish between which is better of the two. One can argue that this decision will not have to be made that often, as the diminishing law of returns will mean that reducing the happiness of one such person by a small amount will allow one to increase the happiness of the others by a proportionally greater amount, however the situation may still arise in certain discrete circumstances and unless guided by other notions of morality, the utilitarian will not be placed to make such a judgement."

Tags:actualism, equality, happiness

Abstract
This paper examines how there can be no doubt that confidentiality is one of the core doctrines of ethical medical practice and has been so since ancient times and how the GMC and other professional organizations stipulate patient confidentiality as an ethical prerequisite, but, crucially, permit breaches of confidentiality in certain circumstances. It provides a comprehensive review of the ethical and legal problems faced by a physician in the management of a patient with a communicable, sexually-transmitted illness.

From the Paper
"Patients expect to have to divulge the most intimate information to their doctors on a professional basis in order that they receive the most appropriate care. This exchange of information is in return for the [implicit] assurance of confidentiality. Patients would be less willing to present to their doctors if this were not the case and the utilitarian ethic would declare that the harm that this would cause in the long run would far overshadow any benefits. There is also a deontological, or "duty-based" ethic, which would propose that Peter's GP has a "duty" to keep the contents of their consultation in confidence, for this is inextricably linked with the privilege of receiving the information and with upholding the autonomy of the patient. A utilitarian ethic could also propose that a breach of confidentiality would lastingly taint Peter's view of the medical profession."

Tags:consent, information, confidentiality

Abstract
After taking the necessary step of considering and modifying the phrasing of the statement, and defining the "right" moral principles under a utilitarian system, the paper begins by discussing Mill's "sanctions" of his morality. The concept of "conscience" and the essential social nature of mankind is also discussed and found to be useful in the debate.

From the Paper
"Furthermore, the "bribes and threats" element of the statement is similar to the legal and political systems of any civilized country. For example, the "bribes" could be the incentive of a health system or an armed defense force in return for a member of society paying their taxes, while the threats are the punishments legislated for breaking the law, which in this case is effectively refusal to adopt the right moral principles as defined by society. It cannot be denied that both the bribes and threats are necessary for the smooth and orderly running of society, to make sure those who do not adopt the right morals do not profit over those who do. While they may not make them truly adopt these moral principles, these threats should at least make them superficially conform to them."

Tags:bentham, happiness, justice, kant, mill, morality, motive, pain, pleasure, utilitarianism, utility

Abstract
Through the examination of a case study of a pregnant teenager, this paper discusses the legal and ethical dilemmas that may arise in the provision of maternity services. It explores the issue of consent and the midwife's sphere of practice.

From the Paper
Rule 6 of the Midwives rules and standards says ' A midwife: Should respect the woman's right to refuse any advice given' (NMC 2004, p17). Sue chose not to go ahead with having blood tests at the time of the booking appointment. She made this decision based on all theinformation the midwife gave her. This information was explained fully, in language that she could understand and was reinforced with the written leaflets we provided. These explained the proposed tests and the implications of not having these for both herself and the fetus. Her parents felt that she should have had all the screening offered at this time and that this was in both her best interests and those of the fetus. However she recognised that she had choice. She could choose to consent or to refuse and she exercised that choice. "

Tags:fetus, consent, services

Abstract
In this article, the writer assesses the nature and characteristics of Victorian moral values. The primary values are highlighted and examined in turn. The work specifically shows, however, the extent to which such values were not equally applicable to all. The writer discusses that differing social, economic and legal conditions dictated that certain sections of Victorian society were removed from this system of values. As such, the writer maintains that it was the unequal nature of Victorian society that guided the extent to which individuals would adhere to the fundamental values of the day.

From the Paper
"However, although in principle such moral values were intended to equally apply to the full cross-section of Victorian society, practically this was impossible due to the extreme social, economic and legal conditions in which many people were forced to exist. On the one hand there existed a sincere willingness to instil a common public morality, but this was often contradicted by the very real poverty and statutory discrimination that was engrained into certain sections of Victorian society. A clear example of this disparity is provided with the issue of women. The two primary texts of analysis used here are Henry Mayhew's observations about the plight of London's needlewomen, published in the Morning Chronicle, 1849 and John Stuart Mill's work on The Subjugation of Women, 1869. Both provide validation to the claim that in many cases; economic, social and legal limitations dictated that Victorian women were simply unable to pursue the moral societal aims of their male counterparts. Each work is discussed individually."

Tags:social, conditions, poverty, discrimination

Abstract
The essay looks at the various macro and micro business ethics issues raised in the film, "Wall Street" and outlines how Western Christian theologians would rationalize these. The essay deals with topics such as greed, corruption, corporate governance, leadership, corporate codes of ethics etc. using Oliver Stone's 1987 film "Wall Street" as a study piece.

From the Paper
"In Wall Street we find that Gecco has a plutocratic monopoly over the power and control of his company because he has the board "in his back pocket" . At Gecco & Co. there is a tragic lack of contestability, and Gecco, being at the pinnacle of the corporate organogram has absolute power. However from a Christian perspective, especially considering Gecco's laissez-faire ethical stance, this is hardly ideal, and if we look briefly to the Christian scripture on leadership qualities we find from the Christian perspective, Gecco is certainly not the right man for the job -"the overseer must be above reproach, the husband of but one wife, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not given to much wine, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, and not a lover of money."."

Tags:theology, Gecco

Abstract
This paper examines the principles of utilitarianism, a deontological theory that assesses morality by looking ahead to the end result and the consequences that it will cause in terms if the happiness generated. It outlines some of the criticisms leveled at utilitarianism as a theory- such as those of ignoring personal factors, being too complex to undertake,and not allowing for any concrete intrinsic moral values.

From the Paper
"It is also not possible for an individual to be able to fully envisage all of the possible consequences an action might lead to. The decision made may therefore not be fully informed and could have disastrous unforeseeable results. As a deontological theory then, it becomes redundant. The act of calculation itself becomes too complicated to be able to employ in everyday life. People are not able to contemplate any result that could arise from any action they consider in terms of the happiness benefit. This hugely undermines the practicality of such a theory, as it would unrecognizably transform a persons life."

Tags:consequentialism, ethics, mills, morality, philosophy, rawls, theory, williams

Abstract
This paper examines how act utilitarianism is a direct moral theory and how the morally right action is the one that maximises happiness. In comparison, it looks at how rule utilitarianism, while concerned with actions, is a more indirect theory in which the morally right action is not the one that necessarily maximises happiness in every situation. It considers whether John Mill is an act or rule utilitarian, using Mill's idea of customary morality and evaluates which version of utilitarianism is more plausible.

From the Paper
"Rule utilitarianism is not then very plausible as a form of utilitarianism, but it does at least offer answers to some of the problems with act utilitarianism. If one is to maximise happiness then in theory one has to calculate the welfare values associated with every potential action. This is obviously not realistic as one would have to spend a good deal of one's live calculating such values, which itself would surely not lead to happiness being maximised as these calculations themselves can not be described as particularly pleasurable. Indeed would someone really stand on the shore contemplating the consequences of saving a drowning man for more than a split second before acting?"

Tags:morality, worship, happiness

Abstract
This paper examines two organizations: Exxon Mobil and The Body Shop. It suggests that in the case of The Body Shop, the presence of an ethical code has increased their commitment to ethical marketing practices. However, in the case of Exxon Mobil, the presence of an ethical code does not necessarily ensure a strong commitment to ethical marketing practices. It concludes that the presence of an ethical code can only increase organizational commitment to ethical marketing practices if it is enforced by either an ethics officer or an ethical awareness program. In addition, it shows how the effectiveness of ethical codes can vary between organizations and industries.

From the Paper
"The Body Shop is an organization that set themselves tough standards within their code of ethics; their mission is to dedicate its business to the pursuit of environmental and social change (Anon 1, 2004). In an organizational context, the code of ethics has been developed in order to support the marketing objectives and the mission statement of the company. Due to the size of the company, the actions of the Body Shop are visible to the public and the external pressure to manage ethical activities is far greater than that of a smaller company (Weaver, 1993). Therefore, any mismanagement of ethical activities will reflect badly on the company and contradict the high expectations that have been outlined within the code of ethics. Weaver (1993) reinforces this perspective suggesting that it can be potentially dangerous for a company to use ethics as a positioning tool."

Tags:body, exxon, mobil, shop

Abstract
This paper discusses abortion, showing all the key themes and issues currently affecting it. The introduction defines terms necessary for the paper such as "abortion", "human life" and "human person" and gives a history of abortion from ancient until modern times. It then puts forward the arguments of "pro-life" and "pro-choice", focusing on two unusual case studies that turn upside-down commonly held views on when abortion is or is not appropriate - one supporting abortion (a mother who simply did not want a child at her life stage) and another opposing abortion (a woman who was born after her mother was raped). It attempts to show through these examples that it is possible to eloquently argue either for or against abortion but that ultimately it is impossible to determine whether abortion is "right" or "wrong" and that each case needs to be judged on its individual merits.

From the Paper
"The Catholic Church also has inconsistencies regarding intra-uterine devices (IUD's) and its funeral and burial services. Most people believe that IUD's interfere with the implantation of fertilized ovum in the uterine wall. If this is correct, it means that IUD's terminate development after conception and therefore after a human person has been formed. This means that, technically, approximately 43% of American women have had an abortion. There have also been burial services and funerals held by the Roman Catholic Church for aborted fetuses. However, this has not generally been the case as fetuses have not been considered full persons by the Church to the extent of being worthy of a formal requiem mass or formal burial service."

Tags:choice, human, incest, life, person, rape