Abstract
This essay examines the problem of traffic congestion and how governments are dealing with it. Furthermore it analyses the main differences between the public and private sector in imposing tariffs and tolls, as well as how the optimum price of tolls is determined. Finally it suggests solutions that could reduce congestion in urban areas

From the Paper
"Congestion is mainly a problem as a result of shortage of road space, and luck of such facilities to satisfy the needs of passengers and travelers. In other words congestion problem deals with capacity Vs demand.Solutions that have been used until now seem not to work. Although the development in public transportation means (busses, trains, trolleys etc.) has had a tremendous growth in big cities, the problem not just remains the same but also increases other external problems such as "accidents, noise annoyance and environmental pollution, which all together contribute to an excessive social pressure". Why people still drive in cities? And why can't we build more roads to cope with the problem? What differentiate congestion under the public and private sector? What's the government role in solving the problem of congestion?"

Tags:buses, congestion, dues, private, public, rails, tariffs, tolls, urban

Abstract
This paper provides an extensive background and analysis of transportation methods and their supporting systems and services on a national, regional and local basis. The author stresses the importance of safety and that as technology continues to advance, new safety systems and standards will continue to develop.

Table of Contents
Introduction
History of Transportation
Transportation Today
Safety Devices
Department of Transportation
Travel on Land
Travel by Ship
Air Travel
Railroad Travel
Keeping Transportation Safe
Bibliography and Endnotes

From the Paper
"Today, there is a vast array of transportation choices, commercial airliners, trains, automobiles, subways, buses, motorcycles, motor homes, ships, boats, or bicycles. Depending on the amount of time and money we want to spend, there are many choices involved in travel.
But with these increased means of travel come change in global markets, environmental challenges, transnational security threats and a communication and information revolution. Every mode of transportation has individual risks, safety issues, laws, and problems. And each mode of transportation has agencies that deal with them."

Abstract
This paper explains that Big Dig, a state-of-the-art eight-to-ten-lane expressway, for the most part underground or underwater, will run through downtown Boston and the Ted Williams Tunnel to Logan Airport. The paper reviews three areas of environmental concern: The digging and dumping of the dirt, mitigation and air quality. The author points out that the mitigation aspect of the project protects the city from devastating noise disruption, dust, traffic gridlock and economic damage.

From the Paper
"There are other benefits as well. According to Daniel Wood of Public Roads Magazine, the Big Dig will be "good news for the local shellfish population because of the construction of an artificial reef in Boston Harbor" (Public Roads). The reef, created in collaboration with the National Marine Fisheries Service and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is designed to compensate for filling in over one acre of blue mussel habitat in the harbor during the closing and capping of the former municipal landfill on Spectacle Island. Wood also says that, "As the northernmost artificial reef system in the United States, the complex is expected to become home to lobsters, crabs, and finfish, as well as the displaced blue mussels" "

Tags:underground, underwater, downtown, parks, airport

Abstract
This paper explains that when America's leaders began to develop ideas for how best to tap into the natural resources in the vast, sprawling Western lands, they didn't shrink from thinking splendid thoughts on a grand, colossal scale, which resulted in the building of Hoover Dam. The paper details the history of how the mighty Colorado River, "America's most dangerous river," became the conduit for the annual production of 10 billion kilowatt-hours of electrical energy. The author believes that the story of how the Hoover Dam was built is a demonstration of how, today, jobs could be created, positive projects could be constructed, and the future could be made stronger and brighter.

Table of Contents
Thesis
Introduction
Background Colorado River Facts
The Early History of the River
Floods Create Havoc along the Southern Banks of the Colorado
Selecting a Site and Working out Water Rights for the Dam
Legal and Political Problems
The Hoover Dam Project Begins in Earnest
Living Conditions for the Workers
Deaths during Construction of Hoover Dam
The Specific Strategy to Tame the Colorado River
Specific Numbers and Data
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The building of the dam was not only a much-needed flood control and electrical generating endeavor but also a job-producing project in the midst of the Great Depression. There were 5,218 men working on the dam at the peak of construction, men who desperately needed work in very rough economic times. With a monthly payroll of some $750,000, that worked out to around $145 per month per man. The men ate at a mess hall that fed 1,300 workers at a time. It cost each single man $1.60 per day for food, housing, and transportation to and from the dam site. For married men, the cost for a small, unfurnished house ran between $15 and $50 a month."

Tags:depression, flood, electricity, resources, projects

Abstract
This paper examines and documents data pertaining to all aspects of wind energy. Presented within the paper are facts and illustrations with regards to wind turbine energy systems, including environmental impacts, advantages, disadvantages, turbine operations, turbine mechanics and statistical data. Moreover, historical facts along with current and future trends regarding wind turbines are discussed. The primary scope of this paper is to put emphasis on the importance of alternative sources of energy. The paper explains that the current uses of non-renewable and unclean fossil fuels are not only depleting at an alarming rate, but are wreaking havoc on the environment due to the harmful pollutants that are emitted from their use. The paper concludes that wind energy systems are quickly becoming main-stream for both governments and private ownership alike; wind power is the wave of the future! This paper contains illustrative figures.

Outline:
Abstract
A Brief History of Wind Mills
Wind Turbines of Today
Missouri Incentives
Current Technologies
Pros & Cons
Key Locations
Constructing a Turbine
Turbine Components
Conclusion
Literature Cited

From the Paper
"The cost of producing wind generated electricity is decreasing with the help of new technologies. Since the implementation of green pricing programs and tax breaks for renewable energy, the growth of wind turbines and farms are being encouraged. Utility providers throughout the United States are offering a green pricing option which allows customers to opt out of using fossil fuels, and instead renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. Unfortunately prices for renewable energy are typically more expensive as a consumer, but at least the option is available (DOE, 2009)."

Tags:alternative, power, generation, natural, environmental

Abstract
Wind power could be the wave of the future; however, it hasn't been utilized to even a small percentage of its full potential. In this essay, the advantages of wind power are explored, and concerns about the transition to this form of energy are addressed.

From the Paper
"It is the year 2003, and Americans are in a crisis. This predicament is much greater than the obvious issues currently plaguing this country. The threat of terrorism and our economic recession might be setbacks to the nation's progress, but the United States of America's dependence on fossil fuels and nuclear power is alarming. Even when scientific advancements have been made concerning the harnessing of renewable and perpetual resources for energy, especially wind power, it is highly neglected. Although it has been used in several states, wind energy has still faced opposition and hasn't been used to its full potential, even though it is the better bargain in the long run."

Tags:alternative, energy, environment, sources

Abstract
This paper discusses the wider issues of interaction between public, planning and politics and views the interaction of the three within the context a controversial development proposal - plans for a new football stadium in Guildford. The main inputs from politicians, the people and the planning system are discussed at various stages at the planning process.

From the Paper
"Guildford is a town that has seen the relative decline of its football abilities. The application was made as a direct response to the wish of AFC Guildford to progress to the Nationwide Conference League. The club currently play on the pitch at the center of the running track at the Spectrum Leisure Center. The track however is not capable of being upgraded to the requirements of the Conference football league. There is an area of green land adjacent to the Spectrum Leisure Center, which it was felt could possibly accommodate better facilities. With these historical and practical issues in mind the planning application for a new stadium was submitted in February 2004. The stadium would be built by the Trinity Investment Co. Ltd on behalf of AFC Guildford. Such a large scale and controversial issue could not be decided within the normal eight week deadline. The application was concluded in January 2005."

Tags:surrey, politicians

Abstract
This paper examines how the 'M6 Toll' was born as the Birmingham Northern Relief Road and how its transformation was far deeper than its name suggests, as the project represented a radical model for infrastructure projects in the United Kingdom. It looks at how the concession and funding arrangements resulted in a focus on the development of long-term revenue, rather than building cheaply to meet a short-term budget.
Outline
Introduction
MEL and CAMBBA
Public Relations
Belief Systems
Conclusions
Bibliography

From the Paper
"MEL was very successful in promoting the BNRR. Its success was partly due to the involvement of private industry, which was able to use innovative techniques to convey its message. There is a great contrast between the project's newsletters and the staid announcements from the Highway Agency, eg when the road was officially designated the 'M6 Toll'. (The name itself betrays the Agency's lack of imagination. What will happen if tolls are ever charged on the current M6? Does nobody recall the turnpikes of the 18th and 19th Century?) Shenstone is one of the closest villages to the route. The Chairman of the Parish Council admitted "It has not been as bad as everybody thought it would be. Those involved in the construction have been very pro-active and the disruption has not been as bad." (Edge 2003)"

Tags:birmingham, bnrr, cambba, motorway, nlp, staffordshire, transport, value

Abstract
This paper examines the topic, New Urbanism, synonymous with the term "Smart Growth" which is a way to develop land efficiently, whether it may be a new development using open space land, or a redevelopment of a part of an inner city- called "infilling". The paper explores the ten principles that New Urbanism is guided by and gives examples of developments across the country that have used this method and prospered.

From the Paper
"Small, picturesque towns like Nantucket and Savannah dot the eastern landscape of the country. These towns are the illustration of the principles America was founded upon: closeness, unity, community, and family. The neighborhoods were compact and had mixed-uses. Everything a family needed in the normal course of the week was all within walking distance. There was a town square where the townspeople met and talked. In the youth of this country small developments like these were common, however in the last 50 years America has seen development practices take a turn for the worse. The current practice of building suburbs nationwide sprang up after World War II, and development has sacrificed hundreds of thousands of acres to this practice ever since. Now the majority of U.S. citizens now live in automobile-oriented, unattractive suburbs full of strip malls and four-lane roads with four-foot sidewalks. Although this is still the norm, there is a new kind of development that is making an impact on the way communities are built. This new method, called New Urbanism or Smart Growth, has caught on in the last 20 years and is now popping up all over the country. New Urbanism is a way to combat ugly urban sprawl, replacing it instead with small, interconnected communities that are pedestrian-friendly and contain housing, work places, shops, entertainment, schools, parks, and other amenities essential to the daily lives of residents, all within easy walking distance of each other. New Urbanism involves using the principles it sets forth to fix and redevelop existing cities, called "infilling", as well as to create new, high-density, compact towns and villages."

Tags:architecture, city, community, design, development, engineering, estate, growth, inner, land, new, real, smart, sprawl, suburbs, urban, urbanism

Abstract
This paper explains that, inevitably, bridges deteriorate over time at different rates: Timely maintenance activities, which are well-planned and carried out with minimal disruption to road users can present substantial savings in terms of both time and money for both bridge owners and road users. The author ponts out that, to tackle the complicated issues regarding bridge management, research activities in the UK as well as other countries in continental Europe concentrate largely on the bridge management process, with attention given to improving the use of limited finances to maximize the returns from the maintenance and repair of the bridge stock as well as reduce additional costs due to traffic delays and lane closures for these activities. The paper includes a critical review of other BMSs used worldwide, development of models to predict bridge condition over time, analysis of the various road user costs and using different optimizing techniques to best allocate finances and optimize bridge performance. 39 tables. 40 figures.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Objective
Bridge Conditions in the U.K.
Introduction
Maintenance and Upgrading
Expenditure
Department of Transport (DoT) Programme
What is a Bridge Management System (BMS)?
Introduction
Department of Transport Structure
Maintenance Agents
BMS in the U.K. and Other Countries
Introduction
Bridge Condition
Other Information in BMS's
Condition Prediction
Cost Models
Decision for Maintenance and Repair
Prioritization
BMS in the U.S.A.
BRIDGIT System
PONTIS System
SMIS System
Inventory
Inspection and Assessment
National Structures Programmes (NSPs)
Prioritization
Project Creation
Whole Life Assessment and Costing
Activities Schedule
Data Accuracy
Design Specifications
Access
Integration with External Systems
Bridge Inspection and Assessment
Bridge Inspection Types
Defects
Bridge Scoring
Introduction
Definitions
Bridge Condition Score (BCS)
Bridge Condition Index (BCI)
Bridge Stock Condition Index (BSCI)
Multi Span Bridges
Bridge Scoring Example
Interpreting BCS's
BCS Results
Histograms for Bridge Stock
Interpreting BCI's
BCI Results
Interpreting BSCI's
Predicting Bridge Condition with Time
Introduction
Markov Chain Approach
Example Calculation
Bridge Condition Example
Bridge Condition Results
Bridge Aggregation Example
Bridge Aggregation Results
Bridge Stock Example
Bridge Stock Results
Traffic Costs
Introduction
Traffic Count Example
Traffic Count Results
Traffic Delay Cost Examples
Delay Costs Results (1st Example)
Delay Costs Results (2nd Example)
Accident Cost Example
Accident Costs Results
Environmental Impact
Introduction
Emissions Example
Emissions Results
Decision-Making and Prioritization
Decision-making
Introduction
Prioritization
Introduction
Dynamic Programming
Budget Allocation Approach
Budget Allocation Results (1st Example)
Budget Allocation Results( 2nd Example)
Budget Allocation Results ( 3rd Example)
Improvements to Budget Allocation Approach
Introduction to BCI optimization approach
Service Potential (BCI) Examples
BCI Optimization Results (1st Example)
BCI Optimization Results (2nd Example)
BCI Optimization Results (3rd Example)
Maintenance Costs Examples
BCI Optimization Results (4th Example)
BCI Optimization Results (5th Example)
BCI Optimization Results (6th Example)
Conclusion
Future Research

From the Paper
"It is proposed that the transition probabilities to be used are the Bridge Condition Index (BCI), which operates on a linear scale of 0 (worst) to 100 (best). The degree of severity of bridges is linearly distributed over this range (i.e. BCI of 50 to 51 is the same as 90 to 91), except that costs are expected not to have a linear distribution. This is a useful approach as the BCI (average) is interpreted as 'service potential' and is used as a performance indicator.
Using the example for multi span bridges earlier on, the transition probabilities for a three-state Markov chain model with limiting stage value of 3 is proposed. The probabilities are in accordance to the BCI values for the 'good' bridge arranged in order of descending magnitude (i.e. P(1) = 0.9845 and P(2) = 0.9246). For the purposes of comparison, the other two bridges ('medium' and 'bad') are also modelled and the three are plotted together."

Tags:allocation, asset, costs, delay, environmental, highway, maintenance, management, optimisation, resource, traffic