Abstract
The paper explores human rights and equality legislation, sentencing options and the key principles of restorative justice. The paper explains how the conceptions of social and criminal justice differ in the way they conceptualise both the criminal and the crime. The paper then shows how in its present form, therefore, the legal system has largely negative consequences on the establishment and maintenance of social justice. The paper also points out, however, the many possibilities for allowing social justice to flourish.

From the Paper
"The purpose of the legal system is to effectively administer the national law. Due to its very nature, the law aims to avoid ambiguity and thus offer a clear and set collection of rules and codes that are capable of universal enforcement. Although for decades there have been protracted attempts to include the ethos of social justice within this legal framework, the two concepts have often come into conflict with one another. The basis of social justice is that all aspects of society afford just and fair treatment for all, including that beyond the auspices of the law (Jordon, 1990) As such, the idea of social justice is capable of transmission to areas unavailable to the law."

Tags:human, rights, equality, legislation, sentencing, restorative, justice, social, work

Abstract
This paper studies the levels in crime during the nineteenth century, and the possible causes and reasons for this. It looks at the introduction of the Police Constable into British society, their role and the effects they had upon the crime trends. It also includes other factors that may have affected the crime rate, such as poverty, the increase in population and the increased convictions of crimes.

From the Paper
"The passing of the Metropolitan Police Act in 1829, gave the Home Secretary, Robert Peel, the chance to establish a brand new police force. Two commissioners were introduced to run the force, Colonel Sir Charles Rowan and Richard Mayne, which would consist of 3,000 policemen to serve London, excluding the City of London. To be run similar to a military unit, with military discipline, the force was hoped to be a band of men strong, fit and of high qualities. But it was a very different story in reality; those picked were unfit, ragged, ill-disciplined, young and drunk. The main reason for this was due to the low pay and so the only people attracted to the job were young men who had no families or responsibilities and for half of the time would be drunk. The job would be used as a temporary fill in job, before a person could get into another position. The low rate of pay was the biggest reason for not being able to recruit the best possible person; even by 1872 the problems had not improved. PC Green, a member of the Birmingham police force said "The rate of wages is such that I would never have accepted it had I not been driven to it. The performance of police duties deprives me of both my comfort and my liberty, and when I put on my uniform I become the scoff of every low blackguard in the town." "

Tags:19th, britain, british, century, crime, history, law, police, trends, constable

Abstract
This essay takes a look at how crime is recorded in the British Crime Survey and criminal statistics. These are compared to see if the criminal statistics are a true level of the crime in Britain. This essay looks into the home office criminal statistics, the British crime survey and the police recorded crime statistics. These are then compared with what is the definition of crime, definitions of different forms of crime and the way in which they are reported.

From the Paper
"To examine the extent to which criminal statistics present a true record of the level of crime in Britain, it is imperative to research into what is the definition of "crime". How the Police Recorded Crime statistics and the British Crime Survey (BCS) record crime in Britain, and the ways that it is reported in the criminal statistics. It can be argued that not all crimes are recorded by the police; as a result it is essential to see how this affects the criminal statistics. Furthermore if there is not a requirement to report crime, for example insurance purposes, or there is a fear of reporting crimes it is imperative to consider crimes not reported to the police and how this also affects criminal statistics and if there is a way of discovering crimes not reported. It will subsequently be beneficial to compare and contrast criminal statistics and the level of crime in Britain to investigate if criminal statistics are a true record of the level of crime in Britain. (Tierney, 1996)"

Tags:criminal, offences, quantitative

Abstract
This essay discusses capital punishment, particularly the hanging of Iraq's ex-president Saddam Hussein. It begins with a background of capital punishment and a biography of Saddam Hussein. It then explores, in detail, the pros and cons of hanging Hussein. The essay utilizes varying political, religious and personal opinions and tries to come to a conclusion as to whether capital punishment in general (and Hussein's hanging in particular) can ever be seen as valid.

From the Paper
"'Capital punishment' is the execution of a person who has been convicted in a country's court of law, usually for offences deemed to be of the highest order. The first death penalty laws date back to the 18th century BC in the code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon. The Middle Ages brought with them a peak in the rate of executions. In England, for example, it was possible to be put to death for any of 222 different reasons. The first recorded execution in the new colonies was that of Captain George Kendall in the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1608. Capital punishment laws varied from colony to colony. The New York Colony instituted the Duke's Laws of 1665. Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishment theorized that there was no justification for the state taking one's life and gave abolitionists in America an authoritative voice and renewed energy. The death penalty was briefly abolished in the United States in 1972 by the Supreme Court but then reinstated in 1976. In modern times, the vast majority of democratic countries in Europe and Latin America have abolished capital punishment, but the United States, most democracies in Asia, and almost all totalitarian governments retain it."

Tags:capital, death, execution, hanging, hussein, iraq, penalty, punishment, saddam

Abstract
This paper examines through a literature review how genetic, biological, environment and family factors all appear to be viable when researching the etiology of psychopathy even though no clear cause has yet been established. It discusses how research into a combination of the different factors would contribute more to our understanding of the condition and how, until additional epidemiological evidence is gathered, causality is not likely be established.

From the Paper
"The inclusion of a factor that would stimulate or push for antisocial behaviour, such as heightened impulsivity, has been taken into consideration when researching the etiology of psychopathy Gorenstein et al (1980) . Frontal lobes are thought to play a major role in inhibiting impulsivity and any such dysfunction in them could therefore heighten impulsivity. Studies showing that psychopaths have impaired performance on neuropsychological tests of frontal functioning and reduced gray matter in the frontal lobes support the idea of heightened impulsivity Dinn & Harris, (2000) , Raine et al (2000) . Patterson & Newman (1993) demonstrated that heightened impulsivity shows up when psychopaths are presented with a task designed to test their ability to modify their responses depending on success or failure."

Tags:anti, behaviour, genetics, neurobiological, research, social, socialization

Abstract
This paper discusses how subcultural theories provide an alternative view to the sociology of crime, by using the subculture of a particular social group to explain the acts of crime and deviance that are committed by the groups' members. It assesses the subcultural theories of crime and deviance, paying particular detail to sociological theory, including studies from the Chicago School of Sociology, Cohen, Merton, Cloward and Ohlin and Matza.

From the Paper
"Most of these studies are conducted by American sociologists and are consequently based on an American experience of society, which often appears inconsistent to British ways of life. Downes and Rock, however, argue that Matza's theory is particularly applicable to the British context as British studies of delinquent subcultures, particularly with young people show that young delinquents were not in fact members of structured gangs, but they had become dissociated from mainstream society because they were uninterested in their long term future. Sociologists have however criticized Matza's theory. Taylor Walton and Young argue that those who use the techniques of neutralization do not challenge the dominant values in society."

Tags:delinquent, deviance, feminism, functionalism, marxism, postmodernism

Abstract
The paper discusses how the contribution of a positivist methodology to criminology cannot be underestimated and how the very name criminology did not become common until the 1890?s and the rise of positivism. It looks at how the work of Cesare Lombroso established a new method of conducting criminal inquiry even though the work of Guerry and Quetelet on French crime statistics and social data had already introduced a positivistic approach into the study of crime especially with regard to the social links with criminal behaviour. It also explores how the work of the Italian School of Criminology (scula positiva) with people like Enrico Ferri used the methodology that Cesare Lombroso introduced but applied them to different areas of inquiry. It shows how this multi-factor scientific approach allowed the science of crime to develop and become an internationally recognised academic field and encouraged people all over the world to try and search for causal links between crime and various factors like poverty and education levels.

From the Paper
"The work of Lombroso was new and radical but what is more important to the development of positivism and its subsequent influence on modern criminology were the methods that he employed in his study. The scientific methods he used revolutionised the study of crime, his new model of approach sought to identify, categorise and measure differences between criminals. Lombroso published his findings in 1876 in L?Umo Delinquente (The Delinquent Mind) and his work and methods gave rise to a new international movement. The Italian School of Criminology (scula positiva) emerged and took the methodology of Lombroso and expanded upon them. The work of people such as Enrico Ferri according to David Garland, "showed a considerable diversity and eclecticism." The "French School" focused mainly upon the sociological and environmental determinants of crime and the "German School" included the study criminalistics and the development of new forensic techniques."

Tags:durkheim, lombroso, poverty, education

Abstract
This paper looks at labeling theory, explaining its development from symbolic interactionism and the key precepts on which it is based. It covers concepts such as the assertion that an act is not inherently deviant but that deviance is socially constructed, how labels originate and are applied to people; primary and secondary deviance and the distinction made between them. It also discusses the effect of a person internalising a label and changing his self-image to accommodate the label, deviancy amplification spirals and positive feedback loops and moral panics. It then offers some evaluation of the labeling theory, discussing criticisms such as the need for subjectivity to fully understand crime, the relationship between determinism of positivist theories and the deviancy amplification spirals in labeling theory.

From the Paper
"Labelling theory developed from the ideas of symbolic interactionism, a perspective which assumes that social order is linked to social interaction and communication. Shared meanings, behavioural expectations and reflected appraisals (the way in which one perceives others' views of oneself) are applied to behaviour through interaction, and link individual conduct to organisational groups and social structures. A person's behaviour is influenced by others through the process of role-taking, whereby a person projects himself into another person's 'shoes' and appraises himself, the situation and possible lines of action, from the other's viewpoint. "

Tags:amplification, delinquency, determinism, deviancy, interactionism, internalisation

Abstract
This paper discusses the point of view of different schools and presents different case studies of social order maintenance. It describes recent developments in many fields and focuses on terrorism and white collar crimes. It also examines how military power can be used to maintain social order. The issues of censorship during Vietnam and other wars is discussed, as well as media representation and its effect on social order.

From the Paper
"In a model society each individual would strive selflessly for the common good. In reality, various tactics need be employed on behalf of those granted power and by the majority in order to maintain such social order, against deviants that threaten to undermine it. How social order is possible and how it is maintained has been one of the most fundamental questions of sociology since its beginning (Dittrich et al., 2003). The same, however, cannot be said for the study of crime since crime and criminology have not always raised concerns for the maintenance of social order, but rather looked at what individual aspects make some people deviant from the norms set by society."

Tags:collar, control, criminological, criminology, power, thories, white

Abstract
Many sexual predators have admitted that they cannot control their urges to sexually and violently abuse women and children. This paper advocates that more strict legislative measures are needed that would prevent vulnerable individuals from being raped, abused and possibly killed by essentially "incurable" predators. It puts forward the proposal that if people were assured a harsh punishment if they were to commit a crime, they would be less likely to be able to justify their criminal actions as being "worth the risk". It discusses the holes in current legislation and how offenders are often not required to undergo sex offender treatment or evaluation and they are released into the community without being forced to adhere to sex offender registration laws and evaluates Megan's law. Megan's Law refers to the series of laws introduced in New Jersey following the murder of seven year-old Megan Kanka who was kidnapped, raped and murdered by her neighbor, a twice convicted sex offender who had committed a similar crime only months before. It analyzes the increasing public awareness and concern about crime together with intense media focus on the issue.

From the Paper
"According to Princeton University professor John DeIulio, "almost half of the country's 671,000 parolees and probationers are caught committing serious new offenses within three years" (Feinsilber, 1997). Many sexual predators have admitted that they cannot control their urges to sexually and violently abuse women and children. For this reason we should not allow these dangerous criminals to terrorize our neighborhoods, schools and homes. It is therefore my contention that more strict legislative measures are needed that would prevent vulnerable individuals from being raped, abused and possibly killed by these essentially "incurable" predators."

Tags:child, deviants, law, legal, molesters, rapists, sexual, megan, criminals