Abstract
This paper discusses how ever since the ?Thalidomide? incidence last century there has been an ever-increasing amount of resources injected into optical isomeric research and in attaining pure enantiomeric products. It shows how due to different stereochemical characteristics, different isomers will have different interactions with biological receptors in the body, giving rise to different actions. A resultant undesirable effect is therefore inherently possible upon the consumption of chiral drugs, for that reason it is imperative that the end drug mixture is as entiomerically pure as possible. It describes the 3 basic methodologies for single enantiomers: chirality pool, kinetic resolution and asymmetric synthesis and examines the basis of and the techniques of separating them.

From the Paper
"One way of the use of chirality pool molecules merely requires the maintenance of pre-existing chirality throughout a synthesis, with transformation of other parts of the molecule by formation of new chemical bonds or inter-conversion of functional groups. Otherwise, utilising chirality pool can afford a so-called "control element" for the creation of new stereogenic centres by "substrate-directable" reactions. Such reactions may involve complete transfer of chirality from one region to another intra-molecularly.[1]"

Tags:assymetric, biocatalysis, catalysts, chiral, chirality, kinetic, racemate, racemisation, recrystallisation, resolution, sythons

Abstract
This report explains in detail the function, structure and assembly of flagella in E.coli and Salmonella, using plain language and a number of diagrams. Movement (chemotaxis) is the primary function of flagella but its design also incorporates efficient repair capability and antigenic variation. In Salmonella and E.coli the flagellar filament is a homopolymer of flagellin monomers, although other species (such as Helicobacter) build their flagella from mixtures of two types of subunit. All the properties of the functioning filament are reflected in the structure of the flagellin monomer, which has conserved and variable regions, regions targeted by chaperones and coiling enzymes and regions evolved specifically for interaction between monomers. Chemotaxis is driven by a proton motive force (as in oxidative phosphorylation) and the basal complex that converts this energy into rapid rotation of the flagellum is highly complex.

From the Paper
"Many bacteria are motile and exhibit chemotaxis migration through the extracellular medium towards attractants (e.g. carbon sources), and away from repellents (e.g. antibiotics). The majority move using flagella protein structures variable in number and position (Box 1) that generate thrust by rotating like propellers. Flagella are 15nm in diameter and can be observed under light microscopy after thick metal staining or using advanced microscopy techniques such as electron microscopy. Because of the competitive advantages of chemotaxis, there has been strong selection for efficient chemotactic apparatus and flagellar efficiency. The flagellum is based in the bacterial surface layers where a complex array of proteins forms the flagellar motor. Resembling the electric rotary motor and the membrane-bound F1F0-ATPase, and powered by a proton influx across the inner membrane, this highly efficient machine is merely 30nm in diameter. Its mechanism is the subject of ongoing research."

Tags:antigenic, apparatus, bacteria, bacterial, chaperones, chemotaxis, coli, cytoplasmic, escherichia, export, flagellin, flagellum, motile, motility, salmonella, variation

Abstract
This paper is an examination of the mechanisms of colon tumorigenesis involving the mutation cluster region of the APC gene. There is an explanation of colon carcinogenesis including an analysis of the Wnt signaling pathway, the roles of the APC gene's different domains, "Knudon's two- hit hypothesis and the "just right" level of signaling theory. The paper also includes a critical discussion about the scientific arguments and research evidence that exists to challenge current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of colon tumorigenesis. One illustration is included which depicts the varying domains of the APC gene.

From the Paper
"Colorectal cancer is the third most common form of cancer and the second leading cause of death in the western world. Nearly 34,900 people are diagnosed with it in the U.K each year and about 16,000 of these die. About 15% of colorectal cancers are hereditary. Hereditary conditions are divided into two categories: the polyposis and the non polyposis types. Two hereditary conditions that have been identified are Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (FAP) and Hereditary Non Polyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC). The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene is known to be mutated in all cases of FAP but this condition only accounts for less than 1% of colorectal cancer cases. The condition HNPCC results when mutation occurs in the DNA mismatch repair genes MSH2 and MLH-1 leading to microsatellite instability and defective DNA repair. Non inherited mutations of the APC gene have been detected in over 85% of the remaining sporadic colorectal cancers. "

Tags:Familial, Adenematous, Polyposis, Hereditary, non, polyposis, colon, cancer, Wnt-signally, pathway

Abstract
An argumentative paper about the negative effects of human cloning. The author discusses the moral, ethical and religious issues that he believes outweigh the medical advances of cloning. Included is an overview of what cloning is and how it could effect society in the future.

From the Paper
"Human cloning is a controversial topic, the public regards it as inappropriate, while the leaders of certain scientific communities believe it is a sound practice that could be researched and used to benefit society. Human cloning is a form of genetic engineering, which most people consider morally wrong and, "Playing God". Through cloning an individual, you create an exact physical duplicate of that person, however, memories, personality and opinions are not recreated, and so differences do exist. Many pros and cons can be found when looking at cloning in depth, but it is my opinion that overall, it is not a beneficial procedure. There are just too many ethical issues that outweigh medical advances and prolonging life spans. A race has been started between scientists, everyone wants to be the first to clone an adult human, however with hopes of personal glorification and publicity, they have lost sight of the moral and religious issues at hand. Human cloning means creating a breed of people that have no flaws or imperfections, and since perfection does not exist, the clone could be nothing but a disappointment."

Tags:clones, ethics, genetics, twins

Abstract
This paper deals with how spots occur (inflamed lesions), and their subsequent bacterial growth. It gives details into how the effect of various concentrations of anti-bacterial facewashes affect the spread of bacteria. A thorough experimental aceptic technique is made reference to in this paper.

From the Paper
"A spot starts when a pore in the skin becomes blocked - usually with oil (sebum) and dead skin cells, which the skin produces. As the pore becomes blocked, it becomes infected with bacteria, which are normally present on the surface of the skin. These bacteria breakdown the oil and dead cells to form chemicals which cause swelling, redness and the formation of an "inflamed lesion" or a SPOT."

Tags:agar, anti, asceptic, bacteria, bacterial, clearing, coli, epidermis, inflamed, lesions, ph, spots, technique, temperature, zone

Abstract
This paper looks at epilepsy and discusses the different types, symptoms, medication and social impacts as well as its treatment and aftercare. It includes basic understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease process and how drug actions and chemicals in the brain thought to contribute to the disease.

Outline
Disease Classification
Normal Physiology and the Effects of the Disease
Treatment for the Disease
Patient Care

From the Paper
"The symptoms of Epilepsy, in my opinion and using the aforementioned evidence, definitely reflect the effects of the disease on the "normal" physiological functioning of the body. The chaotic, unregulated neuronal discharge in the cortex seems to have, from a simplistic point of view, a direct and visible correlation with the chaotic events, muscular spasm and loss of involuntary functions e.g., Breathing, bladder control or swallowing. The complexities of diagnosis and detection of the areas of brain cortex responsible for the discharge are made somewhat easier by the use of EEG, this also simplifies diagnosis of each individual as well as identifying which strain they may have. Although Monton (1985) does state that EEG has its limitations and therefore requires clinical assessment to be used in conjunction with EEG for effective and accurate investigation and diagnosis."

Tags:absence, acid, aminobutyric, carbamazepine, clonic, epileptic, gamma, seizures, sodium, tonic, valproate

Abstract
The paper deals with a very detailed investigation into how the kinetics of a reaction changes from alterations in pH, the concentration of reactants and the addition of a catalyst in a homogenous solution. Also included is the most effective, yet efficient manner, of determining the rate of the reaction including detailed mathematical calculations. There is a lot of experimental data as evidence included and a detailed practical guide of how the investigation was undertaken and numerous discussions.This paper is essential as a reference for those studying reaction kinetics.

From the Paper
"Investigate the kinetics of the above reaction and thus attempt to find a rate equation for the reaction and also establishing the best method to determine the rate of the reaction. I will do this by varying the concentrations of Iodide ions, H+ ions and Hydrogen Peroxide to generate the rate equation, I will also try to find the effect of a catalyst: Molybdate ion on the rate of reaction and also if the amount of catalyst is relevant in a homogenous reaction. The rate will be found using the iodine clock reaction and also by the use of a pH meter and a colorimeter, and these methods will be assessed to help determine the best method of analysis."

Tags:acid, activation, buffer, catalyst, colorimeter, enthalpy, equation, iodine, mechanism, molybdate, order, ph, reaction, sodium, stoichiometric, sulphuric, thiosulphate

Abstract
This paper examines how fundamental the principles of thermodynamics are to pharmacy. The paper covers the topics of Gibbs free energy change, heat of formation, partial molar free energy, energy change and entropy, and discusses how all these are important in pharmaceutics in deciding drug delivery and dosage form. The paper presents the reader with a clearer insight into how important the above are, with extensive explanations into the three laws of thermodynamics and how they all help the modern day pharmaceutical scientist. Many of the complicated calculations involved in thermodynamics are exemplified through examples.

From the Paper
"A pharmacist is regarded as a professional scientist. Thus he is expected to know more than ever, is a thorough knowledge of thermodynamics. This discipline forms a rudimentary backbone of most of the material sciences as many other disciplines do "borrow" heavily from this. 1,3 In studying thermodynamics, it attempts to integrate the factual knowledge of pharmacy and it aids the pharmaceutical scientist to predict the solubility, stability, feasibility, compatibility and biological action of drug products fairly accurately. Processes such as partitioning of solutes between immiscible solvents, the solubility of drugs, micellisation and drug-receptor interaction can all be treated in thermodynamic terms. 1Thermodynamics is concerned with the quantitative relationships between heat and other forms of energy, including mechanical, chemical, electric and radiant energy. 1The main feature to remember in the study of thermodynamics is that it is not possible to know the absolute value of the energy of a system but it is possible to record changes in energy that happen when a system undergoes transformation."

Tags:acid, boltzman, enthalpy, entropy, equilibrium, gibbs, ionisation, pilocarpine, thermochemistry

Abstract
This paper analyzes St. Johns Wort (SJW), a common herbal treatment. It offers an insight into how its constituents affect us neurologically with its primary ingredients of hypericin, hyperflorin and various flavanoids and describes how, although SJW can be used for various treatments, the main condition that it is used for is depression. It provides a comparative study of conventional anti-depressive agents and their relative side effects and shows how the demand for herbal medicines today is rising at exponential rates, with an obvious advantage such as reductions in the number of side effects. It evaluates whether herbal medicines all that they claim to be and if they contain any profound pharmacological constituents or whether they give just a placebo effect.

From the Paper
"Herbal medicines are clearly mixtures of more than one active ingredient and in many instances, we are not sure which or how many constituents are pharmacologically important. Furthermore, in trying to acquire the mechanisms of action of plant extracts is often complicated even if we know the active ingredient because such extracts contain a wide range of pharmacologically active constituents that might work together to contribute to the pharmacological activity. [1] Our understanding is further dinted if the molecular basis of the disease under investigation is not well understood."

Tags:anti, depressants, hyperforin, hypericum, monoamine, noradrenaline, oxidase, placebo, prozac

Abstract
This paper digs deeply into how aspirin and salbutamol were developed and also how they interact in the body from a heavy chemical and neurological perspective. It also gives a detailed overview into how, in general, pharmacueticals are developed using bronchodilars as an example. Also included are numerous diagrams in order to aid the reader comprehend the text.

From the Paper
"Since 400BC physicians prescribed a bitter powder extract from the willow bark tree to alleviate pain. In the middle of the 18th century two chemists by the name of Fontana and Brugnatelli extracted the active agent Salicin from the willow, and was then converted by Piria into Salicylic acid. Felix Hoffman a German chemist set about trying to synthesize salicylic acid."

Tags:adrenaline, adrenocepters, agonist, bark, compound, cox1, cox2, hoffman, industry, kolbe, meloxicam, pharmaceutical, phenol, salicylic, ventolin, willow