Abstract
This paper discusses the ancient and modern attitudes towards what is considered a city and then creates a 'model' based upon this discussion. It explores and compares the following features, in Greek, Roman and Hellenistic worlds: The concept of a relatively large, nucleated settlement, independence, autonomy and self-government, complex public space and buildings and identity. It also looks at the concepts of protective Gods and founding hero figures.

From the Paper
"As established Pausanias earlier rejection of the "upstart" town, he advocated that he did not base any rejection on grounds of its small size. Aristotle concurs with this view of smallness, believing it to be a necessary condition . A great city is not to be confounded with a populous one. Babylon, to Aristotle, was a negation of a true city, a symbol of elephantiasis . Comparative demography of the modern Mediterranean has been used in league with average tribute assessments to ascertain the population of a region . Both cannot give us an absolute number of citizens for neither voting numbers take into account children, women and slaves nor can we be sure that they represent a typical turn out."

Tags:hellenistic, aristotle, gods, babylon

Abstract
This paper reviews gender, class, money, military purpose, citizenship, behaviour - including hubris and sycophancy and patronage, as different facets determining social class in Ancient Greece and Rome. The range of subjects discussed span over the Greek, Hellenistic and Roman periods, including different examples from many different cities.

From the Paper
"Throughout this essay, it is pertinent to realise that the idea of public and private spheres is an 18th Century premise with no basis in the Ancient world where privacy and community overlapped and were not separate "worlds", rather, there were degrees of closeness. In establishing those inside and outside of the social hierarchy this overlap causes considerable confusion in evaluating factors for status. It would be remise to view women as lack any social status because of lack of political rights; women still played a very important role within society."

Tags:ancient, behaviour, citizenship, city, gender, hubris, patronage, social, status, wealth

Abstract
The paper explores the portrayal of the feminine gender through grave-goods and the light these grave-goods shed on the culture of a woman and her community. The paper examines three contrasting inhumations, one Saxon, one Anglian and one Kentish, in order to compare and contrast these different cultures and communities. The paper discusses the revelations of contrasting styles of dress, varying roles played by women, such as weavers, wives and mothers and the status afforded to the Anglo-Saxon woman through the fulfilment of these roles.

From the Paper
"In order to consider what is meant here by 'gendered grave-goods', it is first important to consider what is referred to by 'gender'. The term 'gender' is usually differentiated from the term 'sex' in that 'sex relates specifically to the biological, physical characteristics which make a person male or female at birth, whereas gender refers to the behaviours associated with members of that sex.' Sex, then, is defined biologically, and gender, culturally. Crawford says of the grave-goods associated with the pagan Anglo-Saxon inhumation ritual, that '[t]he clearest message conveyed [...] was the sex of the deceased', the sharp contrast between the '[w]eapons, including spears, shields and swords' almost exclusively found in male burials and the jewellery that is associated with female burials serving to highlight the very different types of goods used to symbolise the male and female sexes. Stoodley emphasises the contrast between masculine and feminine symbolism further still in his comment that the jewellery of the female inhumation ritual is not only an indication of the female sex, but is also involved in 'the creation of a feminine gender'."

Tags:burials, cultures, communities, rituals, status, weaver, wife, mother

Abstract
This paper reviews recent works focusing on specific areas or time periods in which building materials from archaeological sites are used in standing buildings; however, the author indicates the need for a more general overview of how to identify and analyse building materials and interpret their meaning, irrespective of their location. Next, the author evaluates key methodologies for identifying building materials, for assessing volumes and spatial distribution of use and reuse and for characterizing use and reuse of building materials. The paper includes a short case study about the use and reuse of an Alveolina limestone from the Mixon reefs, Selsey Bill, West Sussex, that illustrates some of the methods and approaches that the paper outlines.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Analysing Building Materials
Methods for Analysing Building Material Types
Analysis of Volumes and Spatial Distribution
Interpretation of the Presence of Building Materials
Reuse of Building Materials
Identifying Reuse
Tracing Use and Reuse
Motivation behind Reuse
Case Study
Study Area and Data
Discussion and interpretation
Summary
Conclusion
Future work

From the Paper
"The main contribution of the work of Windsor (1993a; 1995) and Eaton (2000) is to help move the focus from pure description of reuse to an attempt to address the issue of why building materials were reused. Windsor (1993a) noted the potential in linking evidence for the reuse of building stone to the motives behind that reuse. In particular, the report stressed that this evidence could be used to support (or refute) documentary evidence where this exists.
"Eaton (2000) attempted to model the labour costs of quarrying stone or reusing stone from existing structures and transporting this reused stone by land or water. Eaton's study focused on the reuse of Roman material in medieval buildings in central Northumberland. Eaton demonstrated that there was a decline in the distances travelled to obtain material for reuse through time. This was considered to be due, in part, to the establishment of settlements at large distances from Roman foundations. Eaton expanded his study to consider the labour costs incurred in quarrying stone and in obtaining it from existing structures. Three different scenarios were considered:
1.Reuse, with building material transported over land
2.Reuse, with building material transported by waterways
3.Quarrying of 'new' stone
"This study focused on contrasting the costs of obtaining building material for construction during the medieval (Norman) period at Lydney while considering Chepstow (located about 21 km away) as a possible source of reusable building material."

Tags:britain roman petrological dendrochronology, spatial databases

Abstract
This paper examines how since the Classical period Greek cities had spread unevenly along the coast of Asia Minor, drawn by opportunities for trade, excellent harbors and the region's natural wealth. It looks at how the cities provided the administrative framework for Roman rule and how Roman technology and culture, itself influenced by Greek thought, influenced the Hellenistic culture which responded by adapting the new influences to traditional patterns. It explores how the cities adapted their competitive strategies to include the imperial presence and how the imperial authorities responded by attempting to control competition.

From the Paper
"The widespread growth of the Corinthian order seen in imperial architecture and the rapid replacement of Doric stoas by Ionic or Corinthian colonnades may also be due to regional developments, rather than direct Roman influence. It was already established in several Anatolian cities and it seems to have been favored by Hellenistic kings (Waelkens 1989, 79-80). Its success may be due to several factors. There was a local general taste for richer architecture, itself a reflection of the provinces' increasing wealth (Waelkens 1989, 80). The architectural embellishment and increasing formalisation of public spaces suggests that they were a showcase of civic pride and a reflection of the competitive environment of Asia Minor (Waelkens 1989, 81)."

Tags:senate, architecture, hellenism, emperor, byzantine

Abstract
This essay investigates such egyptology techniques and disciplines as historiography, chronology, philolgy, palaeography, lexigraphy, papyrology, epigraphy, anthropology and ethno-archaeology that can be employed to understand the ancient egyptian economy ranging from such topics as trade activities, importance of particular materials such as gold and silver, bureaucracy, the non-monetary economy and foreign trade relations.

From the Paper
"There are many methodologies and techniques that could be employed to reconstruct and analyze the past in order to better understand the ancient Egyptian economy. Historiography is one such methodology that could be of use because history writing encompasses many different aspects of society and culture. A concise history of Egypt would be particularly beneficial in understanding the ancient Egyptian economy because it would provide an insight into how the economy developed over time, perhaps illustrating the different trade activities that emerged or the gradual increase in free enterprise and markets for example. However historians and Egyptologists are reluctant to write an Egyptian history and instead concentrate on such aspects as cataloguing and labelling (Morkot 2003). Understandably there are a number of difficulties in attempting to write a concise Egyptian history including the sheer amounts of data available, as well as the increased specialization of Egyptologists who focus on one area of study, causing problems for the writing of an overall Egyptian history. Therefore using the methodology of historiography, although would provide a valuable insight into the ancient Egyptian economy, is currently lacking in its availability. Along with this there is also a scarcity of evidence in terms of surviving texts from Egypt that attempt to tell accounts of Egyptian history and this to provides problematic when attempting to use historiography to interpret the ancient Egyptian economy."

Tags:anthropology, archaeology, chronology, epigraphy, ethno, hieroglyphic, historiography, lexicography, paintings, palaeography, papyrology, philology, tomb

Abstract
This paper examines the archaeological search for the historical Atlantis, the theories that have been suggested over the years and the techniques which have been used to investigate them. It looks at how the myth has been captured by many authors over the years such as Ignatius Donnelly. It also considers whether K.T. Frost's hypothesis attempting to prove that the lost city of Atlantis was in fact in the Aegean is the solution to the problem of its location.

From the Paper
"However, if we are equating the destruction of Minoan Crete to that of Atlantis, we run into problems. The most obvious of these is that Atlantis was supposed to have sunk under the sea after experiencing "earthquakes and floods of extraordinary violence" . While Crete probably did experience earthquakes as a result of Santorini, it is quite plainly still there, not sunk under the waves at all. Supporters of the Crete/Thera theory have two arguments to this. The first is that the eruption of Santorini could have caused a tsunami that would have hit Crete. This would certainly be a watery end for the Minoans, but even stretching the imagination one cannot say that it 'sank' the island."

Tags:bull, crete, critias, donnelly, egyptian, frost, ignatius, knossos, minoan, mycenean, plato, santorini, timeus

Abstract
This paper explores how the Persian Wars changed the society of the Greeks, with a special focus on Athens. It attempts to compare the Archaic and Classical periods socially and culturally by using the Persian War as the fulcrum between Archaic and Classical. It also addresses the Persian War as the instigator of resistance that prompted changes within the classical period. It examines the changes in politics, art, literature, economics and intra-poleis relations.

Outline
Democratic Expansion
'Poliscentrism' vs. Imperialism " The Athenian Empire
Economics " Money, Money Makes a Man
The Progression of the Arts: The "Explosive" Archaic and the "Golden Age"
"There is No Growth Without Resistance " A Conclusion

From the Paper
"The reforms of Solon did little to advance democratic rights for the Athenians, whilst he certainly took the first step in ending debt-bondage, it can hardly be considered a leaping bound for democracy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes reorganized political groupings into a great number of tribes so as to break the strength of the clans. Cleisthenes then set about embedding main constitutional power in the Assembly; in spite of this the check of power was still held by elected archons and those of the Areopagus who were almost always of the aristocratic elite. The limitation on how far democracy was allowed to go was always in place. The Archaic Period in regards to the fulfillment or expansion of democracy, and certainly in comparison to the changes to be made in the Classical Period was more the planting of a seed - that would be later cultivated by Pericles."

Tags:athens, economics, classical, democracy

Abstract
By examining the "Annals of Tacitus", the paper establishes where Tacitus' sympathies lay and how these feelings colour the text irreversibly with regard to the reign of the notorious Emperor Nero. It explains why these opinions were formed and how far he is likely to have worked with the methods of a modern historian. It discusses the "literary" feel of the writing and the effects this has, but also evaluates Tacitus by the standards of a modern historian.

From the Paper
"The reign of the notorious Emperor Nero comes last in the Annals of Tacitus, with the final part of his reign missing. In this final section of the Annals, Tacitus charts the downfall of the young emperor, from his beginnings as a young man ("still almost a boy") surrounded by manipulative advisers and relatives to his eventual, violent demise as an extravagant, tyrannical madman. The story of Nero's reign is skilfully written in Tacitus' trademark "silver Latin", and quite entertaining. However, it is important to note that Tacitus can scarcely be considered an historian by today's stringent standards, since he does not evaluate source material to give a fair and balanced view of the period of Nero's reign."

Tags:bias, dio, suetonius, tigellinus

Abstract
This essay investigates whether the natural materials and technology available influenced the development of Egyptian art. The essay argues that the wealth of natural materials Egypt had in its possession provided the Egyptians with access to a range of mediums with which they could develop art. An argument is put forward that the technology and techniques used by the Egyptians greatly influenced and contributed to the development of Egyptian art. This essay begins by looking at the earliest materials and technologies that were used during the prehistoric period followed by an examination of how these materials and techniques developed over time. Evidence is provided throughout the essay to support these arguments.

From the Paper
"Pottery was also one of the earliest forms of artwork in Egypt dating back to the Prehistoric Neolithic and Predynastic Periods. In 1985 Sir Flinders Petrie discovered a variety of Predynastic pottery vessels ranging from Badarian handmade vessels to decorated pottery from the Naqada Period that showed evidence of "exquisite craftsmanship" (Romer 1982:38). The natural materials that allowed for the creation of such pottery included Nile river silt clay, limestone and clayey shale from the cliffs (Romer 1982:45). The early technology used to produce pottery included polishing the pottery with a pebble to give a burnished red or black appearance before being fired in a kiln (Shaw & Nicholson 1995:226). Other

decorative characteristics included rippled lines that were produced by running another natural material, fish bones over the wet clay (Hart 1995:30)). Improvements in ceramic technology and the introduction of the potter's wheel allowed an increase in the range of shapes that could be produced (Quirke & Spencer 1992:178). However J. Romer (1982:70) states that the use of the potter's wheel led to a decline in the quality of Egyptian pottery. He argues that the potter's wheel, although allowing larger vessels to be made quickly and easily from clay, ultimately led to pottery becoming more utilitarian and of less artistic quality. Therefore although the standard of art declined, this is still evidence of how the technology available influenced the development of Egyptian art."

Tags:aldred, amun, faience, gold, Old, Kingdom, Middle, Kingdom, Prehistoric, Neolithic, Period, pottery